Modern Jive

A Dancer's Guide

By Neil Matthews.

Version 0.16 produced on 2006-11-24.

Summary

Modern Jive — A Dancer's Guide is a general resource for Modern Jivers and other (swing) dancers. Topics include: Dancing With Confidence, General Tips, Floor Craft and The Lead And Follow Connection. Approximately 160 Modern Jive moves are described, with “aerial view” diagrams (plus notes, occasional photographs and links to alternative descriptions on other websites).

Modern Jive — A Dancer's Guide is available in a variety of formats: on-line XHTML, RTF, or as a (printable) PDF version.

Licence

Copyright (c) 2003–2006 Neil Matthews. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License¹, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the licence is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.

Notices

Disclaimer

This guide contains techniques that may cause physical injury — use of these techniques is entirely at the reader's own risk, the author(s) and other individuals involved in the production and dissemination of this guide assume no responsibility for injury or damage resulting from the execution of techniques and exercises presented therein. If in doubt, seek medical advice.

Warranty

Because this document is licensed free of charge, there is no warranty for the document, to the extent permitted by applicable law. Except when otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties provide the document “as is” without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as to the quality of the document is with you. Should the document prove defective, you assume the cost of all necessary corrections.

In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing will any copyright holder, or any other party who may modify and/or redistribute the document as permitted above, be liable to you for damages, including any general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising out of the use or inability to use the document, even if such holder or other party has been advised of the possibility of such damages.

Trademarks

All trademarks —^®— are acknowledged as the property of their owners.

Preface

The way to learn to dance is by dancing — not from websites, or the printed word. However, if you are already dancing and looking for ideas, then this guide might be a useful resource. To reiterate, this guide cannot be, and is not intended to be, a replacement for “traditional” dance classes.

This guide is intended to grow over time² so missing moves or tips may already be included. If you have suggestions for moves or tips to include in the next version, then please email moves@afterfive.co.uk.

Organising This Document

The items on floor craft, and leading and following were difficult to organise and several points could have been considered in places, for example, ensuring your partner is relaxed (certainly not tense) could be considered as part of the conceptual part, a specific item on leading, or part of an item on “etiquette” — in general, a reasoned technical approach has been applied, on the understanding that this does not supersede or invalidate any social elements.

What Is Modern Jive?

Modern Jive is the general term³ for a partner dance popular in the UK, Australia, New Zealand — there are classes in other countries, including: France and Dubai.⁴.

Modern Jive is easy to learn, since “basic Modern Jive” is danced without complex syncopation or (any) footwork. The short-length and modularity of Modern Jive moves also makes it easy to dance them socially (“in freestyle”). Modern Jive is sometimes referred to as a “touch” dance, since moves are led and followed through the hand or dance holds. This lead and follow, enables improvisation, so that personal repertoires of moves can be developed — thus, moves and styling vary between classes — although they are more likely to be standardised within franchises such as Ceroc^®, or umbrella groups such as the LeRoc French Jive Federation.

Modern Jive is somewhat of a hybrid dance form:

It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine characteristics that feature in all Modern Jive moves. However, many Modern Jive moves feature movements that are predominantly two musical beats in duration — starting on the “up-beat” and ending on the “down-beat” — different Modern Jive organisations may teach these movements with a single step (over two musical beats), two steps (over two musical beats — for example, a step on the left and then closing the right foot to the left), or neglect to teach any specific footwork. Similarly, many Modern Jive moves start with both partners stepping away from each other, then both partners close towards each other, and then the move finishes with both partners stepping apart — this yields a general feel of repeatedly moving apart and then together⁸. Obviously, experienced dancers may blur move boundaries so that start and end positions become less obvious.

Modern Jive is mostly danced to 4/4 music⁹, with tempo of approximately 27–40 bars per minute, i.e. 108–160 beats per minute.

How Modern Is Modern Jive

How Old Is Modern Jive

Jive was developed as part of international (ballroom and) latin dancing during the 1960s in the UK — taming the wilder elements from social Rock'n'Roll, Jitterbug and Lindy Hop into a more constrained and simplified six beat basic. Modern Jive was developed in the 1980s, and is modern by virtue of being twenty years younger¹⁰ — so in fact in the twenty first century “modern” jive is actually older now, than was the dance it modernised, i.e. ballroom jive.

New And Improved

The terms new and modern have been applied many times to indicate that a dance style is different from, newer than, and “improved” from its predecessors. For example:

However, if Modern Jive is viewed as a “street dance” constantly open to reinvention, then there's no reason not to consider it as modern in the sense that it can be kept up to date¹¹ — but in that case Modern Jive is probably no more modern than say salsa¹² or Lindy Hop, e.g. there are hip-hop styles of all three dances.

Modern Jive History

Some historical questions about Modern Jive in the internet era can be answered by examining the Ceroc website at the Internet Archive.

Modern Jive Companies

Although dancing is considered as a hobby, Modern Jive classes are (lifestyle) businesses and are subject to all normal competition issues (plus, personality clashes, “politics”, etc.). At a practical level, this can affect the “hobby” dancer in several ways:

Dancing With Confidence

With apologies to the lyricists of “Kissing with Confidence”¹⁹:

Advice Before Dancing

Why Dance?

Dancing offers a variety of benefits [Happiness Is……A Kilt & A Pirouette], [Burn Fat Meet Chicks], and [Dancing And Health]:

The late Michael Argyle (a social psychologist at Oxford Brookes University) concluded that the most pleasurable activity to take part in is dancing (and in particular group Scottish dancing). A variety of other research has been conducted into dancers and dancing²¹, e.g. [Why good dancers are attractive], [Symmetrical People Make Better Dancers], [Comfort For The Rhythmically Challenged — Blame It On Your Genes, Not The Boogie], [Cheerleading Can Kill: Official].

Modern Jive As Exercise

Modern Jive is not normally a vigorous form of exercise, although it can be when dancing to fast music. In particular, followers are more likely to get more exercise, as the natural reaction for most (slightly lazy) leaders is to lead less strenuous moves for themselves — at least one teacher is rumoured in jest to dance without moving his feet at all, although perhaps they are moving so quickly that they only appear to be stationary.

Table 1 gives an approximate guide to the number of calories burnt for each dance (for several body weights) — a kilogram of fat contains roughly 7,900 calories.

Note that the figures are for continuous dancing, so classes and social dancing probably won't yield quite such a high calorie expenditure; social dancing may only provide say 50–60% of the listed figure due to sitting out some dances, waiting for long musical introductions, or wandering to the bar. High calorie (alcoholic) drinks, or snacking (after the dance) will also negate any calorie deficit derived from dancing.

Injury Prevention

You are more likely to hurt yourself when tired, ill, unfit or new to dancing — so consult your doctor before dancing, if your lifestyle has been sedentary, or if you are pregnant, or have a medical condition — especially when symptoms might be masked, e.g. if using painkillers or strapping. It may also be advisable to mention any health issues to your dance teachers. Strenuous “acrobatic” moves, i.e. jumps, leans, or drops, should be avoided if you have back, knee, or other problems. “Listen” to your body and take account of any nagging aches or pains. — any injury (even a seemingly minor one) should be treated seriously, as they may worsen over time or act as a weakened area where a more serious injury may occur,

Increasing your flexibility will help your dancing; if you think that warming up, flexibility and stretching is “cissy”, then look at [Marine Corps Daily Sixteen]. Make sure that you don't immediately join a freestyle or class, and warm up (in the sporting sense) and stretch your muscles thoroughly before dancing to avoid strains ([Stretching], [Stretching and Flexibility Frequently Asked Questions]) — especially in winter. Even a basic warmup will be helpful, especially if you will be dancing any quick, or “abrupt” movements — for example if you spot when rotating, then warming up the neck (and shoulders) before dancing is a great idea!

Dance-specific exercises and stretches are difficult to obtain, however Bob Anderson (the author of [Stretching]) has devised a specific set of Tango stretching exercises.

Similarly, cool down and stretch well after dancing.

Check your shoes regularly and replace them if they wear out or do not provide enough support — obviously keep laces tied tightly.

Injuries

Even under the best-regulated conditions accidents and injuries will occur.

The general acronym for soft-tissue injuries is RICE(D): Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation (and Doctor).

Complementary techniques, such as applying arnica to bruises, etc., are claimed to speed healing. Some people also use dietary supplements, or complementary medicines. A tens machine might also alleviate some aches and pains.

Leg And Back Pains

Confusingly, leg pains may not necessarily be due to a leg injury per se, but can be due to “referred pain” stemming from a (lower) back problem. Even more confusingly, leg pains may be due to both a leg injury and “referred pain” stemming from a back injury.

First Aid For Feet

Cushioned plasters are useful if you get blisters. Foot sprays can help to refresh your feet during a long evening of dancing — and can certainly improve your chances of getting a relaxing foot massage. Painkilling sprays and gels, e.g. ibuprofen gel, can help soothe aching feet if you are dancing at a freestyle.

Fitness References

Ideas and techniques for injury prevention can be found in: [How To Dance Forever — Surviving Against The Odds] and [Dance Technique And Injury Prevention].

Ideas and techniques for injury recovery can be found in: [Stretching], [Sports Pilates — How To Prevent And Overcome Injuries], [Beating Sports Injuries — Through Conventional And Complimentary Methods] and [Sports Injuries — A Self-Help Guide].

Dancing When Pregnant

Tell your partner!

Consult your GP beforehand. For example, you may need to drink more fluids to keep hydrated, and also need to take care not to overheat the foetus.

Eating And Drinking

Leave enough time to digest any (heavy) meal if you will be dancing strenuously — at workshops, it may be better to eat smaller meals more often.

It is important to eat sensibly²² — however, fishy, spicy and garlicky foods, or strong alcoholic liquor, may be best avoided before a dance or lesson, so that your partner is not overwhelmed by your bad breath, especially as Modern Jive is danced close together.

Dehydration reduces (sporting) performance and concentration, and hence increases the risk of injury, additionally, dehydration can promote “dry mouth” increasing the risk of bad breath (halitosis) — so drink plenty of liquids at long classes or dances.

However, avoid large amounts of alcohol (especially leaders) — Dutch courage is more likely to impair, than improve, your concentration and dancing. Alcoholic fumes can linger persistently which can also overwhelm your partner (especially in a close hold). Similarly, “power drinks” should be treated with caution, sometimes they may leave one partner “hyped-up” potentially dancing at a faster rate than their partner.

Dietary Supplements And Complementary Medicines

Supplements, such as glucosamine, chrondroitin or cod-liver oil²³ are claimed to help joint health and flexibility. Similarly, complementary medicines such as bromelian, ginger extract, and devil's claw are claimed to relieve aches and pains.

Personal Hygiene

Modern Jive is danced in close together in open and closed dance holds — sometimes extremely close, depending how comfortable both partners are with each other. Hence, personal cleanliness (including an effective antiperspirant deodorant), a good dental hygiene regime, and clean clothes show your consideration and respect for your dance partners — and thus are important, especially if you hope for a (second) dance. If your (shorter) partner is leaning away and repeatedly breathing to the side (away from you) — or even turning their head to breathe (as if swimming front crawl) — this should be a “subtle hint” to investigate whether you have body odour, halitosis, or other condition.

Cover Before You Cool, Strip Before You Sweat

You will sweat if you are dancing vigorously (during the Summer), or are just in a warm venue. Practically, sweaty hands make it harder to maintain a grip (think about drops) and can make turns faster than intended, and catching spins problematic. Clammy hands and soggy shoulders will make the dance unpleasant for you and your partner. If you are sweaty, then towel down. Otherwise, you are likely to shower your partner in a spray of sweaty droplets when you spin rapidly — or drip sweat on to your partner in a dip, or drop — so bring a towel to wipe your hands and mop your brow. Similarly, extra change(s) of clean clothes are strongly recommended to keep cool, dry and fragrant.

If you are doing a day of workshops, it is probably a good idea to take several layers, so that you can stay cool during class, but can keep warm (and supple) during any rest breaks.

It is a good idea to bring dry clothes for after a dance, or at least a warm coat — to cool down gradually.

Illnesses

Please be considerate if you are suffering from a cough, or cold.

As most moves are danced with a handhold, your fingernails should be clean, smooth, and preferably short. Obviously, robust waterproof sticking plasters should be applied to any cuts, or grazes.

Long nails, while considered fashionable by some, can cause problems when dancing, especially if the hand is clenched so that the nails dig in to your partner's hand, e.g. during a catapult-style lead. Some dancers may consider long nails as a reason to excuse themselves from dancing with you.

Perfume And Makeup

Colognes, aftershaves and perfumes should be subtle, i.e. not overpowering at close quarters. Hand lotions and creams should be applied thoroughly, your partner may be allergic to them — greasy hands are also difficult to lead or catch.

Hair

Style long hair, so that it doesn't “whip” your partner during turns, or spins — fixing your hair will also prevent it catching fingers, e.g. during Combs.

Clothing

The choice of outfit depends on the event and venue, but cool, comfortable clothing is recommended, as you may be dancing for several hours. Fringing or layering, will help give some extra movement emphasizing twists, turns and spins — but avoid beading or sequins that may scratch or snag your partner, or loose billowing clothes that can trap arms. “Slippery” fabrics and clothes with a loose lining, can cause the leader's hand to slip (possibly leading an outer fabric layer) and fail to lead their follower clearly.

Leaders should check that their clothing will not hide their leads, e.g. that a hand offered behind the back will always be visible.

You might also consider how suitable your clothing is for dancing, for example if it is liable to undo — obviously any knots should be tied securely (in a double knot), whether it will slide around (as your partner's hand slides around your waist), how its material copes with sweat, or whether your kilt or dress will flare up unexpectedly during fast turns (especially when making rapid changes of direction).

Trousers with turnups may catch high heels if there is a lot of intricate footwork. Similarly, overly long trousers are also a potential trip hazard.

Dresses with “spaghetti straps” can be somewhat problematic, as the straps often fall off the shoulder while dancing, necessitating frequent readjustment — this can be somewhat alleviated by using fishing wire, or similar, to create an “invisible” link between the two straps. Similarly, strapless dresses, such as ball gowns, can pose problems when dancing for other reasons — it appears that specific double-sided sticky tape products, such as body tape (toupee tape), can help keep material firmly in place.

A full-skirt, or slit-skirt, or trousers may be more suitable than a long straight skirt for dancing lunges, or any acrobatic moves, especially jumps and splits.

Types Of Events

Jewellery

Jewellery and body piercings should be not be worn if you are dancing acrobatic moves. For example, chains and necklaces can become accidental garottes; and pendants, crosses, etc. may hit you in the face in drops.

In general social dancing, try to avoid sharp rings that can scratch your partner, especially if the stone has twisted round to the palm side. Similarly, avoid chunky watches, bangles, bracelets, or large belt-buckles, as these can snag your partner's hands, clothes, or hair. Necklaces, chains and bootlace ties should be secured so that they do not fly out when spinning. Large hoop earrings are also best avoided in case they catch in your partner's fingers, e.g. during a Comb.

Don't dance with mobile phones, keys, or other items, clipped onto a belt, these can snag hands, especially when sliding round the waist.

For reasons of self-preservation, remove pens, combs, or other unbending items from pockets; they can be injurious in steps such as lunges. Similarly, remove keys, coins, and other sharp objects to avoid them bruising your partner — at least, move them to back pockets, or outside pockets (i.e. the left pocket for leaders and the right pocket for followers), so they will not rub against your partner in a closed dance hold.

Glasses

Make sure that your glasses will not fly off when dancing; an extra strap may be useful when dancing acrobatic steps.

Shoes

Avoid “loose shoes” and which may slip off easily (especially if you will be dancing any kicks), e.g. flip-flops (thongs), mules or loose sandals. A style of shoe with a definite heel can be useful for some ballroom dances, to get a clear differentiation between stepping on the ball of the foot and the heel. Dance shoes should also be comfortable and suitable for turns and spins — although, a degree of traction can be useful when leading moves that require support, such as dips or drops. Obviously, choose your shoes to suit the floor — some gymnasiums may prohibit outdoor shoes, trainers with (marking) black soles, or stilettos that may leave dents in wooden floors.

Changing shoes can help in varying your dance style — both psychologically — and physically, e.g. a smooth sole may help create more fluid, gliding, dance moves; whereas a trainer may help create a more abrupt hip hop style.

It is a good idea to check your dance shoes regularly; loose or worn soles and heels can be dangerous. Similarly, aches and pains in feet, legs or back might be exacerbated if your shoes are worn and not providing appropriate support.

One easy way to try to ease tight shoes, or make loose shoes tighter, is to change the way that you lace them [Ian's Shoelace Site].

If your feet are getting bruised, then cushioned insoles, e.g. sorbothane, or disposable gel insoles (“party feet”) can be used. Note that any extra padding will raise the foot inside the shoe (which can cause problems if the shoes are tight, or have tight straps) and may also reduce your connection with the floor.

Buying Shoes

Hopefully, your chosen shoe shop should be able to provide a range of sizes, styles and colours to try. Ideally, there should be a tryout area with wooden flooring similar to a typical dance floor — obviously, it is important to be able to check shoes on a suitably representative surface.

Your feet will swell when you dance — it is probably best to buy dance shoes later in the day (wearing the socks, etc. that you would normally wear dancing) to ensure a comfortable fit. Obviously, try any new shoes thoroughly before dancing, or at least bring a spare pair — it is difficult to concentrate on subtle leads and follows when your shoes pinch.

Trainers

Some people avoid trainers, because the soles may stick when spinning, possibly increasing the risk of twisting a knee or ankle.

Dance Trainers

Like traditional trainers, dance trainers offer a high degree of comfort and cushioning. Dance trainers differ from conventional trainers in sole design and composition, for example, the composition may be more suitable for turns (or have a “sweet-spot” for spinning on). Dance trainers may also have slightly angled soles, that will encourage your weight forwards. Dance trainers often have split soles (with separate toe and heel parts) for greater flexibility, at the expense of reducing arch support. However, dance trainer soles can be relatively thick and inflexible, and may not necessarily give you as good a connection with the ground as say ballroom shoes.

Ballroom Shoes

Men's ballroom shoes look similar to conventional men's formal dress-shoes (brogues), but are lighter but have relatively little support or cushioning compared with (dance) trainers. If you prefer to dance with your weight forwards (or even gain some height), then many “latin” (ballroom) shoes are available with Cuban heels in a variety of heights.

Ballroom shoe often have suede or topi soles, and are thin and flexible, enabling the dancer to make a strong connection with the floor, i.e. be “well-grounded”. However, ballroom shoes can be less suitable than trainers for moves that take your weight completely onto your heels, as ballroom shoe heels have a sharp edge with little traction. Suede soled shoes shouldn't be worn outside of a proper dance floor as the soles will get extremely dirty, especially if worn outside. Many dancers carry their dance shoes in a protective shoe bag.

Lady's ballroom shoes have similar suede soles, but have relatively high heels, that may make them less suitable for Modern Jive although they are often worn for Salsa and Tango. Open-toed shoes are probably less suitable when dancing with beginners.

Inevitably ballroom dance shoe soles will collect dirt, getting “slicker” and faster — the soles can be cleaned with a shoe brush²⁵, raising the nap of the suede for a safer footing. Note, that you don't necessarily need to clean (and slow) the entire sole — you can keep an area slick, say for spinning, or otherwise personalise the shoe's grip.

Shoe Bag

Useful items to carry in your shoe bag (aside from shoes) include:

Dance Floor

Ideally, dancers should choose shoes to suit the floor — without resorting to lubricating powders, or other “remedies” — as there are several problems with using such powders:

If you absolutely must, then dust your shoes and not the dance floor. In extremis, bare feet will grip well, whereas socks will slide well.

Organisers should not change the “character” of the floor, e.g. by speeding it up with French chalk or talcum powder, or slowing it down with washing powder, grated candle wax, or washing it with diluted coca cola. — especially after people have picked their most suitable shoes (which will also get dirtied by the above remedies) — and certainly not while people are dancing.

Modern Jive Classes

You don't need to bring a partner to dance with at most Modern Jive classes — it is customary to rotate (swap) so that everyone gets a chance to dance, although some classes have separate rows for fixed couples, i.e. those who chose not to separate and mix with other partners during a class.

Talking quietly in the class, or while waiting on the sidelines, isn't a problem — however, talking loudly over the teacher is likely to annoy your fellow students, especially if you aren't taking part in the class. Don't forget to mute, or turn off, your mobile phone.

Modern Jive Class Levels

Classes are often categorised as follows:

Note: class levels are only consistent within a given franchise, or organisation — a workshop intermediate level may differ from that at your normal class, so it's worth reading the class descriptions.

Modern Jive Venues

Locating Venues

Unfortunately, organisers often assume a high degree of local familiarity, so it is important to locate your prospective dance venue beforehand. A number of useful sources include:

Events

Try to check the venue before travelling: events in a “hall” can mean anything from an event at a stately home, a village hall, a school hall, or even a scout hut. Similarly, any event can be described as “a ball” with the dance held in the “main dance hall”, and while “Dress to impress”, “carriages at midnight”, etc. may seem somewhat up market, but is no guarantee.

Promoters will describe all events as “in high demand” and just about to sell out — unfortunately, this isn't always the case. However, if you are travelling a long distance, then it is sensible to buy tickets in advance, in case the event is sold out.

“Quiet” events can be somewhat detected before parting with your cash by checking the number of vehicles in the vicinity. Similarly, if the hall curtains are pulled tightly across to prevent people looking in, then this is probably an indicator that there may be only a few patrons inside (especially if curtains are pulled in the heat of midsummer).

Venue Bars

Venue hiring rates assume that dancers will buy drinks from the venue bar and not bring in drinks from outside — if you do bring your own drinks this could cause trouble with the venue for you and the organisers — especially, if you leave empty bottles behind of brands not sold there. If you do bring in drinks from outside, then the venue fee may be increased dramatically, or a corkage charge may be levied on you or possibly the organiser — and hence raise ticket prices.

Smoke Free Venues

If you are looking for a smoke free venue for a particular class or event, then check [UK Jive].

Pairing Up

Partners can pair up “randomly” to join a class, alternatively some teachers will organise a more formal pairing up to avoid people feeling “left on the shelf”. One pairing up mechanism is a “joining walk” where separate queues of leaders and followers partner up into dance couples in the middle — normally, couples keep moving round alternating to the left and right of the room gradually moving round into rows, or a circle, as required.

Rotating

Rotating in class is a great way to mix with other dancers, and can often make it easier for shyer dancers to ask for dances during freestyle(s).

There are two basic ways that a class rotation is organised:

When changing partners, the process can fail for a number of reasons, e.g. people fail to hear the number moving or miscount, people drop out (perhaps due to a difficult class), others will join later. If you move around and find yourself without a partner, simply rejoin the queue (in a sin bin), or place yourself between two couples (to form a new gap). If you are stationary and find yourself without a partner, then collect a partner from the queue or select a partner from a “gap”. It may be easier to raise your hand, and draw the failure of the rotation to the teacher's attention, so that they can rectify it without having to leave and rejoin the queue — particularly if there are “multiple miscountings”.

If you are “resting” in the sin bin, or a gap, take the opportunity to dance your part solo — this will not only give you something to do, but will keep you up to date if new moves are taught while you are “out of circulation”. Dancing the move on your own also provides an opportunity to become confident in your own steps and movements, without the distraction of a partner moving at the same time. However, followers must be careful that they don't begin anticipating (after practising on their own) when they rejoin the class with a partner.

It's easier to join a class partway through if there are gaps; or joining at the point where partners “fall off” if a sin bin is in operation — to avoid confusing those counting their way around.

Taxi Dancers

Many classes provide taxi dancers (or taxis), i.e. volunteers chosen by the organiser to dance with beginners and encourage them — taxi dancers are often rewarded with free entrance, or other perk.

Taxi dancers can help out in a number of different ways:

[Dance Volunteers] has some interesting (non-Modern Jive ideas on the responsibilities and motivations of taxi dancers (or dance volunteers). [Taxi Dancer Responsibilities] gives a practical example of the taxi dancer's responsibilities. For example, taxi dancers are representatives of that particular organisation, and should behave as such.

Hopefully, those organisations that provide taxi dancers, will introduce them to the beginners — many organisations provide uniforms for taxi dancers and other staff (generally a distinctive fluorescent t-shirt). Ideally, taxi dancers will be proactive in asking beginners to dance. However, if you are unsure of who is “a taxi dancer”, then ask the reception staff.

Learning To Learn

Listen to the teacher.

You never know when they might say something useful!

Even experienced dancers will benefit from new ideas — different instructors may be able to give a different perspective or style to a familiar move or technique. Often dancing the move in a class exactly as the teacher may provide new insights — even if you dislike or disagree with that teacher's approach²⁶. If you race ahead in a class because you “know” the move, then you won't improve your understanding and your partner probably won't learn a great deal either. If the move goes wrong, then racing ahead is counter-productive as there's no chance for improvement, since the teacher won't be able to diagnose which element is problematic.

Make a specific point of listening to and clearly performing the movements that they indicate for your partner. For example, if the teacher says that you will be using a specific hand, then indicate which that hand to your partner — especially if you are in an obscure double-handed position, e.g. a contorted version of a hammerlock.

Watch the teacher. Unfortunately, some teachers may not necessarily explain their precise movements, so be prepared to watch how they actually dance — as opposed to what they say.

If in doubt, ask — even in a class. If you are having trouble understanding a move, then it's highly unlikely that you are the only one who is having trouble. However, be aware that in a class situation teachers won't necessarily be able to answer every question in great depth, as a lengthy discussion would adversely affect the other students' lesson — ideally, teachers will make themselves available for detailed questions after the lesson.

Accept corrections from teachers with a degree of humility, since moves may be unsafe if danced incorrectly.

Unfortunately, teachers rarely hand out written summaries of routines or moves. Even when summaries of routines are available, they may be little more than an ordered list of move names. If you want to remember routines or moves, then the following ideas may help:

A Learning Perspective

Unfortunately, learning — especially when starting — means that will probably have to move outside of your “comfort zone”, especially if you aren't prepared to mess up: you will make mistakes, and so will your partners — unless you have exceptional natural talent your dancing won't be perfect immediately.

After each lesson try and consider the techniques that you have learnt since the start of the lesson, even if you can't necessarily apply them immediately²⁸. Hopefully, at the end of each lesson you should be able to find some new element, so that your dancing (or at least dance knowledge) will have improved since the start of the lesson.

Leading And Following In Class

Classes are a great opportunity to practise lead and follow, as there are fewer distractions than in freestyle — so try to lead and follow in classes.

Style In Class

Classes are a great opportunity to practise your style, as there are fewer distractions than in freestyle. If you are confident of the taught move, then try to add your own style to the move rather than rushing ahead (and distracting your partner's learning).

Class Feedback

Some venues provide a feedback book for comments.

If you keep quiet and don't provide feedback about classes then you aren't helping your teachers improve their service to you and other dancers:

Class Freestyles

Ok, here's the big secret…
…classes don't help, if you can't apply them…
…you'll only learn to dance freestyle, if you actually dance freestyle…
…if you make mistakes, then congratulations you're learning!

If you don't practise outside of the rigid class environment, then it is difficult to remember moves, learn to improvise, etc.

If you “run away” or hide, then it will probably make it more difficult to ask, or dance, in the freestyle the week after, etc. You can always hide in a far corner of the dance floor and freestyle there.

Obviously, ask the students in your own class — they'll be feeling nervous too, and hopefully keen to practise. Ask the taxi dancers, that's why they are there! Remember who asked you to dance previously, and ask them — they'll probably be delighted to be asked. Then when you're still confident, ask someone new.

Performance (And Freestyle) Anxiety

Why do I always seem to have problems dancing with a certain partner?

If you are having (non-technical) problems dancing with a particular partner (especially if you are trying to impress them), then part of the problem might be that you have an expectation that the dance will go badly. For example, if previous dances failed to reach your (high) expectations, then it's understandable that you may start to wonder whether your next dance with that partner will also be unsatisfactory. This can lead to a vicious circle, where worrying, getting tense and waiting for something to go wrong, will cause something to go wrong.

Unfortunately, the only advice is to stick to simple moves and try to relax — if you do make a mistake, then make a joke of it, rather than worrying.

Declining A Dance

Obviously, if a partner's behaviour is dangerous or makes you feel uncomfortable, then you should not feel obliged to accept a dance with them. However, social dancing is both about dancing with others and being sociable — ideally no one will refuse a dance (without a good reason) especially as it can take courage to ask — but this convention should not be abused to monopolise a partner.

There are a few reasons when dancing socially that can be used to decline a request for a dance gracefully:

Obviously, if you are happy to accept a dance later and wish to soften the refusal, then offer to dance with them later in the evening.

A direct refusal without any reason suggests that you wish to avoid dancing with that person, rather than for any other reason and may be considered rude — a blunter approach would be to explain exactly why you are declining the offer to dance, but this may be best reserved for the most unsocial of partners.

Note that it is considered impolite to refuse a dance with one person, and then accept the same dance with someone else.

If you are turned down for a dance, don't take it as a personal slight³⁰.

Being Declined A Dance

Asking For A Dance In Modern Jive

There are no restrictions on who can ask, or be asked to dance in Modern Jive

The more people that you ask, the more people you will get to know. And the more people that you know, the greater the change you will be asked to dance.

Focus your attention when asking your desired dance partner, a vague approach (from a distance) can lead to awkwardness — especially if more than one person thinks that they have been asked.

Be sensitive, repeatedly walking past people to dance with others can make them feel “passed over”.

Obviously, some times are better to ask for a dance than others, e.g. if a dancer has just finished dancing to a long fast song, then they may decline your invitation and prefer to rest for a while.

A “safe” invitation (with built-in excuse) might be: “Are you resting, or would you care to dance?”³¹.

[The Strength Of Weak Touch] suggests that you are less likely to be declined if you lightly touch your prospective partner on the arm.

Non-Traditional Leader And Follower Roles

A number of companies host dance events (and competitions) for same sex couples [AfterFive Gay Dancing Map].

In Modern Jive it is quite common at general dances to see a lady leader dancing with a lady follower³². It is less common but not unknown at general Modern Jive events for a male leader to dance with a male follower — or even to see three men dancing double trouble. There is perhaps a longer tradition of a male leader dancing with a male follower in Argentine tango — the catch-22 situation of a man wishing to learn to dance, yet not wishing to seem a beginner when dancing with a woman, was traditionally solved by men practising together.

Sometimes the “traditional” roles are reversed and a lady leader will dance with a male follower.

Swapping the leader role for the follower's (and vice versa) can give new insight to the particular skills required for the “other” role — and may give some ideas of how best to lead, by learning how a particular lead feels.

Getting Asked To Dance

There is no refund for sitting out.

People who enjoy dancing (especially those who are relaxed, smiling and having fun) will attract others. Conversely, if you have declined dances in the past, then you are less likely to be asked in the present.

You are less likely to be asked for a dance if you are sitting (at a table), are away from the dance floor (or possibly the bar, etc.), are deep in conversation, smoking, drinking, eating, appear to be in a fixed couple, or are wearing unsuitable shoes or clothes — so put down that cigarette or glass and stand close to the dance floor.

At classes, rather than hoping someone will ask you to dance, introduce yourself to your partners as you rotate in the class and try and arrange a dance for later in the evening, or suggest to your last class partner that you both continue on for the first freestyle dance. Similarly, at dances it'll probably help to turn up to any “mixer” class.

Once you have managed to get a first dance (even if you have to ask) you may find it easier to dance the next one; either by continuing with your current partner, or by asking another dancer who is also walking off the floor — obviously both of you are happy to (and can apparently) dance, and hopefully you'll be feeling confident from your previous dance. If you have particularly enjoyed a dance, then let your partner know — they may be more likely to ask you again.

Stage an “ambush” — wait where dancers will leave the floor. Standing impatiently shows that you are keen to dance, and you'll be in a good position to ask a dancer walking off the dance floor and vice versa.

Lastly, one obvious way to improve your chances of being asked to dance is to make yourself more appealing by improving your own dancing.

Potentially Dangerous Moves

Any form of jump, lift, dip, drop or “acrobatic move” is a potentially dangerous activity — that should be restricted to consenting partners. Leaders should always check that followers are happy to do jumps, drops or other “acrobatic” moves — simply because they've danced them before doesn't mean that they will necessarily be happy to dance them in their current clothes and shoes, or they may feel that the dance floor, dance space, or music are unsuitable.

Asking For A Dance In Other Dance Styles

Other dance styles may have different conventions based on the (perceived) customs from the originating regions, for example, in some more male led dances, followers may not be unfriendly, but may simply not expect to have to ask a leader for a dance.

Argentine tango has an etiquette, or convention, of its own so that a leader's machismo is not “dented” by a public refusal. Before requesting a dance, a leader will make eye contact (cabeceo) with their chosen follower across the room. If the follower maintains eye contact as the leader approaches, then the leader can “safely” assumed that the follower will accept the verbal offer to dance. However, if the follower breaks eye contact as the leader approaches (for whatever reason), then this is considered to be declining the invitation to dance — the leader can easily abort their approach, without having (their ego dented by) a more public verbal refusal. Similarly, followers can indicate their willingness to dance by making eye contact with leaders.

How Many Dances?

Opinions differ as to the minimum number of dances, and conventions differ in dance styles and locations. At present, in London and the southeast of the UK, it appears that the conventional minimum number of dances that can be expected is only a single dance. However, in other parts of the UK, the conventional minimum number of dances that can be expected seems to be two dances.

Entering The Dance Floor

If you are entering the dance floor, than it is your responsibility to avoid those dancing and not vice versa. So, don't just face your partner and back on to the dance floor, walk on forwards so that you can easily spot other dancers and avoid them.

You should still be careful once you have got onto the dance floor, especially if it is part way through a song, and other couples are already dancing — there is more possibility of a collision, as they may not be notice you immediately.

If the dance is progressive, then entering the dance floor should be treated similarly to joining a motorway — you need to wait until a gap is available in the flow of dancers along the line of dance, and be prepared to accelerate up to the speed of the other dancers. If you join the floor and spend a long time stationary, for example working out which foot to start with, you will just be an obstruction for the other progressive dancers moving along the line of dance. Modern Jivers need to be sensitive and should only enter the dance floor when there are gaps between progressive dancers and locate a suitable area to dance, e.g. in the centre of the dance floor.

Advice For Dancing

Have fun.

Make sure that your partner has fun!

Conversation is difficult when dancing, because of the volume of the music, and so non-verbal communications are more telling, especially facial expressions (or lack thereof). Hence, look at your partner (not their chest, or your feet) and keep their interest — is your partner still smiling? If your partner winces, pulls a face, rolls their eyes, “tuts”, or otherwise shows their displeasure at a particular move, don't repeat it “just to be sure”, try something else.

Hold your partner's interest — smile, — give them your full attention, and make them feel good (and hopefully look good). Dance with them, not at them, or worse ignoring them — so, make occasional eye-contact (otherwise your dancing might seem impersonal).

Be sensitive to your partner; express yourself when dancing, and let your partner express themselves. For example, if your follower is not happy with a lot of footwork, then don't dance a lot of footwork — in salsa, don't dance a lot of shines, or in Lindy Hop don't dance a lot of breakaway moves, unless your partner enjoys them.

Lead moves that have a good chance of finishing successfully — take special care to catch travelling spins. Leading moves that a follower can follow, even if they haven't danced them before is acceptable, but some so-called educated moves are not directly followable, e.g. a back Charleston.

Mistakes

In social dancing there are no mistakes, just new moves.

Recovering from mistakes is part of the fun. If something unexpected happens, then smile and treat it as a challenge³⁵.

If a lead for a move goes wrong, then it's reasonable to repeat it, or try it again later — rather than halting, looking annoyed, or saying “Oh, I thought everyone knew that one!” which may completely discourage your partner, especially beginners. However, repeatedly forcing the same move is unsociable.

Collisions

If you collide, or tread, on anyone on the dance floor (including your partner) then stop and apologise.

Collisions can be painful, so check that no one is hurt before you start dancing again.

Teaching During Class

There's only one teacher in a class!

An occasional helpful word can be useful, but don't start teaching fellow students during a class — it is insulting to both the teacher and your victim.

Teaching During Freestyle

Don't!

Teaching blocks the dance floor — it also increases the chance of collisions, since you won't be moving with the general flow on the dance floor and will be concentrating on learning, rather than on your floor craft.

If both partners are happy to learn, then they should move off the dance floor and practise in safety.

“Constructive” Criticism

Dancing offers a welcome relief to many people from the stresses and strains of daily life, and so an invitation to a social dance is not an invitation to offer unsolicited advice — unless there are inappropriate behaviour or safety issues. Personal comments from strangers, or casual acquaintances can be hurtful, so if you succumb to the temptation to offer a helpful hint, then be sympathetic — constructive criticism is still criticism — and no one likes to be criticised, especially when they are proud of their dancing achievements (however modest).

Followers will be concentrating on: following and musicality, whereas leaders will be concentrating on floor craft, moves, leading and musicality — and hence, some dancers (especially beginning leaders) may not be as definite as they should ideally — don't forget that leaders lead with their left hand, i.e. typically their “non-dominant” hand. Dancers who are less definite in leading and following, are often those least equipped to accept criticism about their lack of assertiveness, i.e. have the “thinnest skins”. In particular, beginners won't be able to assess the validity of the advice they are offered, and can be completely discouraged if they are “taught” outside of the teaching environment.

Advice After Dancing

Thank Your Partner

If you've enjoyed the dance, then let your partner know — maybe they'll ask you to dance later.

Leaving The Dance Floor

If you are not dancing to the next tune, leave the floor quickly and quietly — don't loiter, or you'll become an obstacle to those dancing.

Obviously, dancers should have the right of way on the dance floor. If you stand (gossiping) on the edge of the dance floor, you will simply become a hazard to those dancing — remember that this is the fast lane for progressive (ballroom) dancers. If you are not dancing, walk around the edge of the dance floor rather than threading your way between dancers, especially when carrying (and potentially spilling) drinks.

Thanking Bands

Applaud live bands after each number — they'll be happier, and will probably put more expression and effort into the performance, especially if they are not used to dancers who only want to dance, rather than quietly listening to the music — maybe you'll get more encores.

Thank The DJ

Don't forget to thank the DJ if you are enjoying the music. Or if the music isn't to your taste, then you can always try and make a request — maybe a discrete bribe of a drink or two might help.

Cautionary Advice

Respect Your Partner And Demand Their Respect

Although many organisations suggest that you should accept every request for a dance, you are under no obligation to dance with any one who does not show you due consideration. In particular, followers should not feel that they have to dance (or finish a dance) with a leader who hurts them, or whose behaviour is inappropriate.

There is an important distinction between dance space and personal space, don't confuse the one for the other, and respect your partner!

If you are unsure whether a move is appropriate to dance with a particular partner, then don't just lead it and ask “after the fact” — your uncertainty should suggest that you select one that you know is appropriate. In particular, beginners and more “conservative” dancers may feel uncomfortable dancing close to, or in contact, with partners outside of “normal bounds” of open or closed dance holds. In particular, contact near their (or indeed your) face, chest, stomach, rear, lower body, or legs may be particularly discomforting — especially when dancing with a new partner. Just because a move has been taught in a class or workshop, doesn't immediately make it “safe” — especially moves taught in classes such as dirty dancing or strictly sinful, a sensual dance doesn't have to be sexual. Your partner may be “smiling”, but make sure that it is not because they are embarrassed.

If you abuse a partner's trust you may be asked to leave — at minimum you'll get a dubious reputation and be turned down for dances³⁶.

Avoiding Inappropriate Physical Contact

Both leaders and followers should keep their hands at their partner's waist height — if hands are too high or too low, they may drag around your partner's body “inappropriately”. To avoid inadvertent inappropriate physical contact, leaders (and followers) should assess their partner's height quickly at the start of the dance — there may not be time later especially if you are dancing a move where you reach (out of sight) for your partner, e.g. if their hip is higher, or lower, than you expect — you will take hold of something else!

Be sensitive when leading “wrap” moves, e.g. Cuddles, that leave the follower directly in front of you. Aside from obvious problems, such moves may feel claustrophobic for beginner followers, and since the follower will be typically backing you, you may not easily be able to sense any discomfort. To make the move less constricting for their follower, a leader should ideally use a light hold. Additionally, if only the tips of the follower's fingers are held in the tips of the leader's fingers, then this will effectively increase the length of the joint handhold which should be less constricting for both of you.

If as a leader, you find it difficult to gauge an appropriate separation in dance hold, then let the follower determine how close they are held, i.e. the follower indicates if (when) the minimum distance that they are comfortable with has been reached³⁷. In a closed dance hold, one technique a follower can use to indicate their preferred distance is to adjust their left hand so that it points upwards with fingers just on top of the leader's right shoulder, and the heel of their left hand against the front of the leader's right shoulder (chest). If the leader starts to pull the follower in too close (for the follower) then the follower can use pressure with their left hand and arm to indicate that they feel that they are close enough. If the leader continues to pull the follower in past their comfort zone, then the follower can then use their left hand and arm to push the leader's shoulder away to maintain an acceptable degree of separation.

Avoiding Unwelcome Behaviour

If you ever feel uncomfortable with a partner's behaviour tell your friends, the event's organisers³⁸, or ultimately the police.

Although dancing may be intimate — unwelcome physical contact should never take place. If your partner does something that makes you feel uneasy, there is always the option of saying “I'm sorry, that makes me feel uncomfortable — I want more space please!”

In the extremely unlikely event of unwelcome follower behaviour, leaders can take direct preventative measures by leading fast moves that maintain space between them and the follower.

In the unlikely event of unwelcome leader behaviour, it is unfortunately more difficult for followers to take direct preventative measures — however, it should always be an possible to leave the floor immediately, rather than having to wait for the “dance” to finish.

If there is an “honest” mistake or misunderstanding, then apologise immediately and dance “safer”³⁹.

Be Careful Out There

Although the “dance world” is generally a safe and happy one, it may not always be so.

Dancing isn't a universal panacea; while some dancers may find a new life partner, others may lose a current one, or indeed both.

Some posters on message boards have expressed concern that the Jive Aces (a popular band at Modern Jive events in the UK) are linked with L. Ron Hubbard's Church of Scientology, see http://jiveaces.scientology.org (as are their helpers who offer free massages — reputedly termed “assists” — at some Modern Jive venues).

Where possible, watch your drinks (especially, if the drinks are easily identifiable as yours) — so that they can't be tampered with, or spiked.

Where possible, leave any valuables in a safe location at any event (or preferably leave them at home). Note, if you are sharing a room at a weekender event, not all chalets, hotels, etc. have duplicate (triplicate) sets of keys — circumstances may dictate that you (or a roommate) have to leave an empty room unlocked, e.g. to avoid locking out yourself, or your roommate — if this is an issue, it may be worth seeking assurances from the event organisers about the mechanics of room sharing and key availability.

Get Home Safely

Don't walk home alone.

If you get a lift to the venue, check that you have enough cash to get home — in case you or your lift have to leave early. Carry the phone number for a reputable cab firm (be wary of unlicensed taxis prowling near night club venues; legitimate drivers should obviously know who they are collecting and have a licence displayed on their cab).

Take care not to drive tired — especially if you have been dancing late (or especially early), e.g. at a dance weekend.

General Tips

Don't Panic!

Have fun and relax — laugh, smile and breath deeply — relax and remember to breathe. Most dancing is just walking in different directions — walking doesn't (normally) require a great deal of thought — so don't worry, otherwise you can suffer from a “paralysis of analysis”. If you tense up, you will slow down, as your muscles will lock and won't move quickly since they will take time to unlock before moving. — it is difficult to lead a partner who has tensed up.

If all else fails; stand tall, look confident, and bluff — most people won't realise that there is a problem.

Breathe

It's almost impossible to relax immediately on demand; but it is possible to try to relax by breathing slowly and deeply “in to the stomach” so that the diaphragm expands. A consistent warmup and stretching routine (“ritual”) can also help to develop a calm frame of mind, prepared for dancing.

De-stress Your Body

Smile, laugh, grin, etc., etc. If you can smile (even if it has to be forced initially) it can start to fool your body that it should be relaxed. Try walking round with a smile and see whether you start feeling different — yes it sounds as if it is new age mumbo jumbo, but hey it's free to try.

Shoulders And Arms

Shoulders can build up a large amount of tension — especially if you spend all day typing at a keyboard. Try to keep your shoulders relaxed, rather than hunched up — if your shoulders are relaxed, then your shoulder blades should be closer together, than when they are tensed.

Sometimes it can be helpful (when not dancing) to relax your muscles by changing the alignment of your arms and shoulders, e.g. by raising your elbows by taking them away from your body — which should also lower your shoulders.

De-stress Your Mind

Look Relaxed

Keep your shoulders “low” and relaxed. If you raise your shoulders when you dance you will appear stressed, and it can make your dancing look somewhat unnatural.

Posture

For a graceful posture, keep your shoulders down by bringing your shoulder blades together.

Be (or at least look) interested in dancing (and your partner) — slouching will make you look lazy and disinterested. If you need to “lose height”, e.g. when dancing with a shorter partner, bend your knees — don't crouch your body.

Look Where You Are Moving

If you are moving, then look in that direction — as in general your body will tend to move in the direction that you are facing. In particular, if you are looking down at the floor, then your spins and turns will be more likely to travel (forwards) off the spot — “falling into the floor” as you finish rotating.

Energy For Movement

There are two ways for an individual dancer to generate energy to move:

It is easier to quickly change the direction, or intention, of a step when you are balanced. If you are unbalanced, then changing direction requires that you will not only have to change direction, but will also have to stop falling in the original direction — this is unlikely to happen quickly.

Balance In All Things

Maintaining your balance while dancing can take practise — especially maintaining balance on a single leg (or on the ball of a single foot), e.g. spinning. Each partner is responsible for keeping themselves balanced, and not unbalancing their partner. In general, each partner should be balanced at the end of each beat — prepared to move in any direction (or to continue moving in the same direction). If you generate too much momentum, you will not be able to find your balance quickly — if a leader wishes to keep momentum within the move, then they need to maintain a lead to signify this.

It takes time to find your balance, once it is lost. If you lose your balance during a step, then the recovery time will probably disrupt the move and your partner's timing, and possibly their balance⁴⁰. If either partner does lose balance, then the other should help them — this may be easiest when both partners are in closed dance hold.

Balance In Leading And Following

In particular, followers shouldn't use the leader's handhold to keep themselves balanced, e.g. when stepping backwards — tension in the handhold should be deliberate and not just from both partners' weights (momentum) moving apart. Don't needlessly use your partner for balance — in particular, don't grab, or “yank” the handhold with your partner, to pull yourself forwards after stepping backwards, as this will make you seem heavier to your partner which will tire them needlessly, and may even hurt them. If you find that do need support, then it may be that you are taking steps that are too large or are simply going off-balance when spinning, etc.

When you are connected with your partner via a hold (especially a closed dance hold) then you will have a shared axis to balance about and a shared sense of that axis. However, partners may sometimes have to sacrifice their individual balance so that they remain in balance as a couple — several Modern Jive leans require partners to lean away from each other.

Circling About A Shared Axis

When both partners circle, they share an axis to rotate around. This rotational axis can vary from half way between both partners (in which case both partners will move around the circumference of the circle) to having the rotational axis coincident with one partner's balance axis (in which case one partner will move around the circumference of the circle, while the other partner rotates while remaining at the centre of the circle).

Let Your Feet Take Care Of Themselves

Dance with your body — not with your feet. If your body is moving in the right direction, then your feet must be moving in the right direction.

Keep close to your partner, but don't tread on them. Stepping too far away from your partner (“too far backwards”), or otherwise overextending your handhold, will cause a “whiplash” effect in your body, and head — when your arm(s) reach their maximum extension.

Similarly, don't lean backwards i.e. don't take your weight too far backwards, as it will take too long to move your weight all the way backwards, and then move your weight all the way forwards — especially to fast music.

Don't let your legs cross too far, so that they “lock” — in that case there's only one direction you can turn to unwind. Which may not be the way the leader wants to lead the follower — can wrench their shoulder?

Feet

A wider “base” will help you to keep your balance; rather than closing feet together, it may be better to keep them a shoulder width apart.

In social dancing, take small steps — large steps mean that there will literally be more room for error and collision. Large steps will not fit well with fast music, and it is more difficult to take large steps so that your feet glide close to the floor.

Listen to your feet. Are your steps crisp and rhythmical? Or do they shuffle uncertainly, e.g. like a herd of elephants?

Notice how your weight moves from the initial contact of your foot with the ground until you commit your entire weight onto it. Unless you are stepping “flat-footedly” your weight is likely to roll from the inside to the outside of your foot — as the weight shifts from the ball of your foot onto the complete sole. This natural rolling of the weight can be used to generate a natural Cuban hip action.

“Toes”

Rather than dancing on your entire foot

keep your weight kept forwards when dancing. Teachers may suggest that should dance on your toes or on the ball of your foot, but it is more accurate to consider the area formed by the big toe, the two adjacent toes, and the front part of the ball of the foot, as shown in the following figure.

Note that your (bare) foot (and toes) will change shape slightly as your weight moves forwards and the heel raises off the floor — good dance shoes will also allow the foot to “deform” to a degree and hence allow the dancer to keep a strong connection (maximum contact) with the floor.

Dancers will often refer to the idea of maximising the contact area between their foot and the floor as “pushing into the floor”. Obviously, if a dance shoe is relatively rigid, then the dancer cannot maximise the contact between their foot and the floor, but can only maximise the contact between their foot and their shoe.

Dancing with your weight kept forwards may make steps and walks less mechanical, i.e. less like marching. Additionally, stepping with your weight forwards, allows the weight change to “roll” through the entire foot when you need to drop the heel and keep your weight over the entire foot — which can make stepping more graceful.

Obviously, rotations and pivots will be easier if there is only a single area of the foot in contact with the floor.

Hands

Use a light grip for your handhold — squeezing, or crushing, your partner's fingers will be painful to your partner and will also mask some of the subtle nuances in the lead. If in doubt do not use thumbs when holding your partner, as it can be painful for your partner if you press the back of their hand with your thumb — however, light brief pressure with a thumb can be an acceptable lead.

Obviously, handholds must rotate freely in turns — so don't hold on to your partner with your thumb(s), or interlace your fingers in their fingers — as this can be painful if a turn is led unexpectedly.

Place your hands — don't swing them on the end of your arm — your arm will move naturally, as you place your hand.

Follower's Handhold

A follower's handhold can sometimes interfere with the lead and follow if the leader's hand is held too firmly, for example gripping the leader's thumb, etc. A leader can mitigate an overly firm follower's grip by leading with a single finger, since a single finger is easier to rotate in a follower's clenched fist. Additionally, a single straight finger is easier to extricate from a follower's grasp, when leading a spin, etc.

Arms

Keep your handholds and arms relaxed, but always keep a degree of spring, i.e. compression or tension, in the handhold so that your arms are flexed, rather than completely rigid. Rigid arms can “lock”, which will slow down your dancing and make leading and following difficult. Provided that the arms don't collapse, tension can be generated in the handhold by stepping or rotating slightly away from each other. Similarly, provided that the arms don't overextend, compression can be generated in the handhold by stepping or rotating slightly towards each other.

If you feel that your partner is tensing up then relax your own hands and arms — some dancers will stiffen their arms to try to restrain their partners as a defence mechanism — relaxing your own arms can sometimes help them relax.

Keep your hands away from your body, i.e. out wide, will help you balance when moving, turning and spinning. Additionally, it allows your partner to catch you easily at the end of a spin (so don't spin with your hand(s) behind your back). Keeping your hands accessible (in front of you at approximately waist height) allows your partner to easily catch your hand at the end of a step to regain hold, lead hand-changes easily, or blocks, or even interrupt your step to transform it into a different move.

Shoulder Line

Don't break your shoulder — keep some tone in your arms, almost as if were holding a notional “hoop”. As a rough guide, you should always be able to see your hands — unless you've definitely bent (folded) your elbow, e.g. in a hammerlock⁴¹.

Figure 1: The shoulder line and the notional hoop.

You are more likely to be injured if you break the shoulder line, as there will be no tension to prevent your partner wrenching your arm or shoulder.

Use Your Free Hands And Arms

When not using a hand, or arm, in a handhold, don't just let it die and hang limply at your side, use it to add some style and pizazz to your dancing. It takes practise, but if you don't you can look extremely unbalanced (lop-sided) -- one half of your body will be dancing and moving well, while the other side is just hanging around.

Body Positioning And Flashlighting

In general, keep “square on” to your partner when you are in front of them, i.e. keep your hips and shoulders facing them.

One technique called “flashlighting”, can be used to envisage your body position relative to your partner. Imagine that you and your partner have a torch (flashlight) stuck to your chests:

and to consider the area “illuminated” by both torches:

In general, for a given separation between partners, the larger the area both “torches illuminate” the stronger the apparent connection between both partners.

Are You Dancing?

Are You Dancing To The Music?

Dancing is not just moving (or performing); dancing is moving to the beat, and moving in time with the music. Modern Jive steps move within the four beat bars, they don't necessarily start on the first beat of the bar.

Are You Dancing With Your Partner?

If you are watching your partner you should always know:

Hence, if you are watching your partner, you can try to adjust your own dancing to suit them — for example, avoiding disrupting your partner's balance when they unexpectedly improvise or otherwise interpret the music.

If you also have a good connection through your handhold (or dance hold) you should also be able to predict how your partner will be moving, by “listening” to the changes in the compression and tension in the dance hold, that will make the lead and follow easier, and hopefully make your dancing more enjoyable.

Watch Your Partner — Don't Look At The Floor

Don't look at the floor, look up and watch your partner — how else can you tell how, or where they are dancing? Why wouldn't you be watching your partner — the only reasons when social dancing are as part of a “pose”, e.g. a Confident Hatchback, or because of floor craft, i.e. looking for obstacles — or making eye-contact with the audience, if performing⁴². Note, watching is looking in your partner's general direction, keeping them and their general surroundings in-view, rather than intently focusing on them with a fixed intense stare⁴³. If you look down at your feet, or at the floor, then you are leaning forwards which spoils your dance line and posture. Most importantly, looking at the floor means that you are not watching your partner (they are probably having to look at the top of your head). Similarly, as you are not stood upright any spins or turns will be difficult. In closed dance hold, looking at your feet will open up a gap between you and your partner, making it more difficult to lead and follow. Finally, you will probably have more collisions if you are watching the ground instead of concentrating on the other dancers around you.

Eye Contact

Eye contact is useful for a number of reasons:

While dance choreography can begin creating a narrative, a performance requiring playfulness, flirtatiousness, sensuality, or seduction will be incomplete if both partners don't interact fully and fail to make eye contact with each other — without eye contact, there is a danger of appearing to simply “go through the motions”.

Keep Dancing

There should be no inadvertent transitions from dancing to not dancing, and vice versa. Keep dancing continuously, don't pause during “slow” stationary parts of moves. For example, leaders should keep dancing (and moving) as the follower spins, or turns e.g. stepping in place, while the follower does a Return or Push Spin.

When Things Go Wrong

Losing The Beat

If you lose the beat and get out of time with the music, then the easiest idea is simply to stop — take a breath — and then try to start dancing back in time with the music.

Floor Craft

Mirror, signal, manoeuvre.

Look before you lead!

Most collisions on the dance floor are simply due to dancers not looking.

Good dancing is not just the skill of dancing in isolation, it includes the skill of dancing sociably with everyone on the dance floor. Since space on the dance floor ebbs and flows, as dancers join the floor or move around it, the main part of floor craft is to locate free space and note the positions of obstacles, bystanders and other dancers — recognising how they are likely to be moving, and more importantly keeping a suitable distance from them, for example, leaving extra room around beginners and more “enthusiastic” (or drunk) dancers⁴⁴. In extremis, leave the floor you are no longer confident of dancing safely.

Floor craft comprises not only floor safety but also floor courtesy.

The more that you dance, the better you should become at predicting other dancers' movements, and the better you are at leading and following increases the time to abort and modify a move to something more suitable. Similarly, the better your technique, the less chance there will be of you requiring more room than you expected, e.g. accidentally travelling when spinning, etc.

Protecting Your Partner

Leaders and followers can only apply floor craft to protect their partner, if they are in arm's reach, or if there is a handhold with “tone” or other connection. Otherwise, there is no way to stop your partner, other than shout! Hence, if there is no useful handhold connection, or the leader is more than arm's length away, then followers must be responsible for their own floor craft — and vice versa.

There are five main objectives in floor craft:

A leader's floor craft should encourage their partner to feel safe and secure — relaxing them and making the lead and follow easier.

The protective part of floor craft is shared between both partners, for example, tell your partner if you notice that their shoelace is undone. The catching role switches between partners — especially if the spinning partner is off-balance or “out of control”. If a partner is out of control, or likely to collide, then the conventional concepts of subtle lead and follow should be ignored. For example, if you have a handhold, lean or step backwards to eliminate any “slack” so that the tension acts as a “brake”.

One useful option is for the leader to show potential obstacles to their follower, e.g. if there is an obstacle behind a follower, then the leader can show it to the follower by leading a Basket or similar style move. Similarly, if the “leader” is moving backwards, or is otherwise unaware of obstacles, then the “follower” should also help prevent collisions, by watching behind the leader and indicating to them if a collision is about to occur.

Followers should keep their maximum separation from the leader consistent with the lead, so that the leader can reduce the space both partners occupy, as the dance floor fills. For example, followers should take their lead from the leader how far to step, e.g. when doing a back-rock — since the leader is usually looking past the follower and can see the room behind them, and vice versa.

Catching Spins

Experienced dancers should keep their own balance under all normal circumstances, i.e. all non-acrobatic moves. However, for safety's sake catching is the leader's responsibility when dancing with a “less-experienced” follower, — if both partners spin, then the leader should ideally finish spinning before the follower, so that they are stable when catching their follower. If the follower is not spinning, or if the follower finishes spinning cleanly (and the leader does not), then the follower should also be prepared to catch the leader.

Keeping The Dance Flowing

Travelling and walking moves forwards can be used to keep a dance flowing, while moving you and your partner into areas where space has become available.

Stepping Backwards Carefully

Obviously small steps in any direction are safest — there is less scope for collisions. The only space behind you that you can assume to be “safe” without looking, is the area on the dance floor in the shadow of your body (and in particular the shadow of your backside). If you take a high step, bringing your toe off the ground, and then commit your weight on to the back foot as it lands, then there is little scope to take any avoiding action. Hence, when you step backwards, keep the moving toe on the floor and keep your weight forwards on your stationary leg — if your right foot touches anything, then close the rear foot to the stationary front foot. Once your toe is backwards, then transfer weight onto it gradually — if you feel a toe under your rear heel as it drops, then move your weight back to the front foot and close the rear foot to it. If you keep your centre of gravity forwards, then it should take little effort to move your weight from your rear foot to your front foot.

Styling Hands Carefully

Loose “stylish” arm movements can become unstylish “near decapitations” on a crowded floor. If you want to make dramatic gestures, then the only space that you can assume to be “safe” without looking, is the area on the dance floor in the shadow of your body. Hence, the only safe way to style your hands or arms is to take them close in to your body and then raise them vertically into the air.

Alternatively, make sure that you keep the hand and arm in sight, or at least within your peripheral vision — looking at the moving hand can also help make the gesture seem more connected with your dancing. Obviously, arm lines should take time to make a dramatic shape — but for safety's sake you must be prepared to bring the hand back in to your body quickly, as you would with a foot when taking a step.

Avoiding Dancers

While tempting, to show off your supposed “leading prowess”, leaders should not lead their partners into small, temporary gaps between other dancers (“threading the needle”) — the probability is that someone will eventually be injured.

Fending Off

If another dancer is moving (backwards) towards your partner, or yourself, you can indicate your presence, by placing your hand lightly on their back — obviously, this shouldn't be the social dance equivalent of a rugby handoff.

Avoiding Obstacles

Leaders should lead their partner (and themselves) to avoid obstacles around the edge of the dance floor, e.g. stairs or stages. Special care must be taken to avoid obstacles on the dance floor, e.g. pillars. One avoidance technique is for the leader to keep themselves between any obstacle and their partner — this can be used to protect a partner from more “enthusiastic” dancers. A more active technique is for the leader to “use” the obstacle — providing that they don't endanger their partner — for example, bouncing off and away from the obstacle puts it at arm's length, and shows that you are aware of it.

Dancing On Empty Dance Floors

Make the most of the opportunity — when it gets crowded, you can slow down and get your breath back.

Dancing On Crowded Dance Floors

Never do acrobatic moves

Throws and lifts have no place on a crowded social dance floor — the potential for injury to the performers [Cheerleading Can Kill: Official] [Negligent Dancing Lawsuit], or bystanders is too great⁴⁶. Deep dips and drops are also dangerous on crowded dance floors — the lowered partner's head will be close to the floor, risking an accidental knee, or kick to the face from a neighbouring dancer.

Don't take up excessive space, and minimise dancing large travelling moves when the dance floor is crowded — meandering aimlessly can cause problems on a crowded dance floor. If you have to travel, then look around and check for obstacles — especially when moving backwards. Be aware that other people may be intending to use the space you have just moved into, and may not be expecting your presence — especially if you have travelled a large distance. Don't take large steps where you can't see (behind you) — drop the heel gradually as you step backwards, this may keep your full weight from squashing other people.

Kicks should be small and directed into the floor.

Large moves do not work well on a crowded dance floor — dance defensively and be compact. Leaders should only lead well-practised moves, experimental moves will obviously require more space — resist the temptation to show off. Make sure that you use lead and follow, and floor craft, rather than dancing fixed routines that cannot be adjusted easily to take account of the crowded conditions. Keep arms and legs close to the body, don't let them flail out, keep elbows in to the body with your arms bent to keep tension in the handhold. It may be better to drop, or release, the handhold in a closed dance position, rather than risking a collision by keeping the hands high with the elbows out.

Choose moves likely to succeed, or have an “escape route”, rather than relying on luck. Moves are safer and more controllable if:

Double-handed moves are more controllable than single-handed moves, and turns with a handhold are safer and more controllable than spins. Turns and spins in-place are safer than travelling versions — leaders should check that their is enough space for followers when leading travelling turns or spins, especially if the follower will be travelling into an area currently unoccupied by either partner, e.g. Hatchbacks. Travelling moves are safer if they follow the general flow of dancers on the dance floor.

Leaders can “show” the space that they wish their follower to move into by lightly sweeping their arm out at waist height, so that any collision will be against their arm, rather than their follower — this supplements the normal lead and also makes it easier to stop the follower if a collision is likely, as the free hand is already available to act as a brake.

Figure 2: How the leader can use their body and arms to protect the follower.

Similarly, in constrained situations leave the releasing hand near to the follower's waist longer, in case you need an “emergency brake”, e.g. a First Move, or Basket Whip exit.

Entering And Leaving Crowded Dance Floors

Be considerate. Walk around the edge of the floor, unless this is impossible. Walk between the nearby dancers rather than through the middle — if you walk on or off quickly, those dancing won't realise that you are in their way. Make sure that there is a enough space to dance in — watch the gap for a couple of beats to check that it is there.

Dealing With Other Dance Styles

Dealing With Progressive Dance Styles

Progressive dance styles travel along “the line of dance” — a notional continuous circuit around the (edge of the) dance floor. Dancers will travel anticlockwise along this line of dance — the single choice of direction means that dancers are less likely to run into each other, than they would were they to select a direction at random. Obviously, since there is an expectation of travelling along the line of dance it can be dangerous to move back along it, e.g. by a leader stepping backwards (when facing forwards along the line of dance). Both leaders and followers need to be be especially careful when dancing against the line of dance — followers should be prepared to indicate if the leader is about to collide when stepping backwards, and leaders should take small steps (if not actually stepping in-place).

Modern Jivers occasionally mix with progressive dancers, e.g. mixing with ballroom dancers at a 1940's event — where big band numbers such as foxtrots and quicksteps can be suitable for Modern Jive Progressive dancers typically travel anticlockwise around the dance floor, with slower dancers near the centre of the dance floor and faster dancers nearer the edges of the dance floor.

Figure 3: Diagram showing the “normal” direction of dance taken by ballroom dancers.

The most complicated steps will naturally occur when progressive dancers change direction, i.e. at the corners of the dance floor, where it is may be harder to avoid static dancers — hence, considerate Modern Jivers might avoid dancing in the corners of the dance floor. Similarly, travelling Modern Jive moves should also go anticlockwise in the same direction as the progressive dancers, reducing the risk of collision.

Acrobatic moves are even less suitable when progressive dancers are on the floor, as there can be no guarantee that any “landing area” will not be occupied by a progressive dancer travelling into it.

Dealing With Slotted Dance Styles

Modern Jivers can sometimes mix with West Coast Swing dancers — slower Modern Jive music can often be suitable for West Coast Swing . The main issue for Modern Jivers is to be aware of the slot that West Coast Swing dancers will be dancing in, since the only evading action that a West Coast Swing leader can employ is to curtail a move, or pause — the dance cannot be turned to avoid another couple dancing on the slot. Ideally West Coast Swing dancers will dance in the same area on the floor, and with slots oriented in the same direction, so that they “pack together” well on the floor — some American dance halls will specify the slot direction that West Coast Swing dancers should dance.

Other Issues

Other dance styles have different issues, for example, partners may dance apart from each other (Lindy Hop dancers may “breakaway” and salsa dancers may dance “shines”), which can make it more difficult to infer which partners are dancing together.

Floor Craft For Progressive Dances

There are a number of simple options that can improve your floor craft when dancing a progressive dance style.

Milonga Etiquette

Milonga's (formal tango dances) have their own particular etiquette, above and beyond the normal floor craft and safety issues:

The Lead And Follow Connection

Dancing is “conversation” to music. And partner dancing is just that: a partnership, a “relationship in motion” between a leader and follower dancing together as a team — “one dancer, with four legs”.

Both partners must be willing to communicate on the dance floor to lead and follow well — adapting to and bouncing ideas off each other, metaphorically and literally, rather than performing a fixed set of moves by rote, i.e. leading and following is a conversation, rather than a series of monologues⁴⁷. Similarly, the best dances (like conversations) happen when there's a good connection between participants. Just lead, just follow, just lead, just follow… can lead to a somewhat one-sided conversation — a “Me Tarzan, you follow!”

Hence, leaders and followers should have a supportive no blame attitude, i.e. followers should be prepared for “experimental” leads, and leaders should provide scope for followers to improvise. The leader also has a duty of care to keep their follower safe — especially in dance styles where the follower usually moves backwards.

Assumptions

The nature of the lead and follow connection can be influenced by assumptions about Modern Jive — these assumptions can make learning easier, but can constrain creativity, after that initial learning stage.

Signalling Is Not Leading

A signal is a deliberate mechanism used by a leader to indicate the response that they (the leader) expect from the follower. In general, this expected response will be non-intuitive, i.e. the expected follower response to the signal must be learnt a priori, by both leader and follower. Obviously, the more signals a leader uses, the more knowledge is required by the follower — and hence, more chance for miscommunication, etc.

There is no reason for a follower to signal a leader, or to echo the leader's signal. However, signalling is unfortunately not the same as leading — a lead can be followed without prior information, whereas a signal needs both partners to share additional information, e.g. both attend the same classes.

Signals vary between different areas of the country — some signals may be unique to a particular class: “Is he scratching his right shoulder, with his right hand, or is he signalling a First Move Jump?” Hence, in social dancing, followers must not rely on any signal as a queue to throw themselves into an acrobatic move, since the leader may not be dancing the move that the follower thinks is being danced — and of course vice versa. Modern Jive Signals lists signals that are commonly used.

There are additional problems of leaders inadvertently leading signals, especially if it is a “generic” movement, such as squeezing a hand; and followers hesitating, thinking that they don't recognise a signal, intended or otherwise. Signalling seems to reduce the improvisational aspects of Modern Jive and of course relying on a particular set of signals will “tie” you to specific venues (where the signals are known) and companies (that teach those signals).

“Official” Moves

New moves are always under development — although to some extent it depends how moves are counted.

This guide describes about 160 Modern Jive moves:

Some classes provide lists of moves, which can sometimes give the impression that these moves are “official” and therefore “better” than other moves. These lists typically have three categories of move names:

In contrast, the most popular move name with teachers appears to be “It's a sort of twisty, spinning, twirly move”.

Lists of moves are fun, but can sometimes encourage Modern Jive “jargon” which can be a bit of a barrier for beginners, and a “Gotta' dance 'em all” collecting attitude. Collecting moves and names can be fun, but don't let that constrain your creativity — a move doesn't need a name for it to be led and followed well — only well known moves have well known names, otherwise they are usually specific to a particular instructor, or class.

Set Leads

Some leaders may give the impression that there are set follows, e.g. always leading a Return after a First Move, but this doesn't mean that every leader will — it may be a confidence issue for beginners, lack of imagination, tiredness, or simply that the music is too fast.

Note in this guide the Return is considered as a separate move — and hence the move descriptions don't include the “traditional” Return ending.

Asymmetries In Moves

Popular moves in Modern Jive can lead to asymmetries in the lead and follow:

However, these asymmetries are artificial and there is no reason that moves cannot be led outside of these limitations — some classes occasionally include mirrored, or reversed versions of moves — increasing the options for leading.

What Is Leading?

Someone has to start all conversations, and on the dance floor the leader starts the lead and follow dialogue, by communicating an intention and offering the follower an initial invitation or lead. The lead does not provide the motive force for the follower — rather the direction of the lead indicates the direction the leader wishes the follower to travel. Leaders cannot make a follower dance a step, they can only make a follower grudgingly move by physically manhandling them — this is not dancing. Bullying, pushing your partner around, or otherwise forcing them into moves is an indication of a lack of leading ability, rather than a follower's lack of skill at following.

The leader can only encourage a follower to dance a step, by making the follower want to dance it. Leads can run the entire gamut from commanding; through cajoling, persuading, suggesting, and hinting; to begging.

Improvising

Complex, planned choreography doesn't always work on the social dance floor, so leading is probably best described as “the ancient art of winging it” (improvising); by its nature music is ephemeral, space on the dance floor is transient, and partners vary in their tastes and styles, etc. Improvising can help in recovering from inadvertent situations, conserving energy, and “taking advantage of the music” by cutting-down or extending moves as needed.

Follower Improvisation

Followers can improvise, using their own style to enhance the move(s) — the leader can offer “a gap” for the follower to improvise within — this offer continues until the follower finishes improvising, or the leader asserts the lead again. If the leader allows the follower to improvise, it lets both partners use their expertise and combine their knowledge, musicality, and creativity.

What Is Following?

Following is an appropriate reply to the invited lead — not necessarily the precise response the leader envisaged. An appropriate response to a lead might enhance, or embellish the basic follow:

Alternatively, breaking convention, the follower may hijack (“sabotage”) the lead, so that the follower temporarily acts as the leader — sometimes called “resistance moves”, offering the leader an invitation to follow — which the leader should also respond to appropriately, for example, a follower might hijack the lead by using a Resistor. The follower should only sabotage moves that the leader can follow — again not necessarily the moves that the leader knows, but those than can they can follow.

A Hypothetical Lead And Follow Dialogue

The man leads the lady into a right-handed return,

Figure 4: Right-handed return

which the lady embellishes by over-turning by an extra 180^o and possibly adding walks, etc.

Figure 5: Right-handed return, with an overturned “latin” embellishment

From here, the man can lead the lady again, e.g. turning her to face him again but should only lead this when the lady is correctly balanced. From there the man can lead the lady into a Sway.

Figure 6: Sway lead

In the sway position,

Figure 7: Sway position

the lady might hijack the lead again, for example by ducking under the man's right arm, and then leading him to follow her by rotating 180^o clockwise.

Figure 8: Lady duck out of sway position, and lead

Anticipating

The most important part of following is to let the lead happen, unfortunately sometimes the follower interferes with the lead, and anticipates the leader.

Anticipating is not following badly — rather that the lead is irrelevant, the follower already has an expected move: “Nobody ever leads anything except a Return after a First Move” and “I've been led into a First Move” therefore “I'm doing a Return”. In the worst case the follower can “anticipate” so that the leader will be forced to lead the follower's chosen move, e.g. by keeping an arm high back lead a Return. Examples of anticipating include:

Followers should always avoid anticipating — it makes leading more difficult and can make it more difficult for the leader to prevent collisions.

Note leaders can anticipate — when the follower hijacks a move, then the leader should follow the hijacked move — leaders may anticipate, misinterpreting the move and may continue forcing their originally intended move. For example, a leader may anticipate a Resistor, forcing a Figure Of Eight, without recognising that the move has been hijacked.

Leading

Don't assume that the follower knows the move⁵⁰

Leading well requires confidence, awareness, and concentration.

Learning To Lead

Information Overload

Leading is not difficult, per se — the main problem for leaders, especially when starting out is information overload: leading, moves, music, follower, etc.

Think About Following

Rather than thinking about the lead per se, put yourself in the follower's position and think how you might react to a given lead — or which lead would best achieve the desired response.

Leading And Following Exercises

Elbow And Connection

The angle of the forearm in an open dance hold will obviously depend on the relative heights of each partner — but generally the elbow, forearm, wrist should be form a straight line in the handhold (not necessarily exactly horizontal) at approximately right angles (90^o) to the body, this means that any force generated at the hand (wrist) will be passed along the arm with little loss. Hence, to maintain a good connection, dancers should support the elbow so that it doesn't “sag” far below the hands; keeping a right angle or more between the forearm and the upper arm.

If the angle between the forearm and upper arm reduces from 90^o it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent that angle collapsing under compression in the handhold.

From a technical viewpoint: if either, or both, the forearm or upper arm are held away from the body, then the connection may be reduced, and it may be difficult to keep the angle between the forearm and upper arm, or between the upper arm and the body constant under compression and tension. From a style perspective: if either, or both, the forearm or upper arm are held away from the body, then there may be a potentially unsightly gap between the body and the arm, which may not necessarily fit with graceful styling.

Generally elbows should be kept in on the same side of the body, as the hands. If the hands are in front of the body then the elbow should be kept in front of the body, etc. If an elbow begins to move past the line of the body, then this is generally a lead for a rotation. If both elbows begin to move past the line of the body, then this is generally a lead to move away from the leader.

Compression

Compression is a state where both ends of an arm (handhold) have a net force applied towards the centre, i.e. an inwards “push”⁵¹.

“Static compression” is generated if both partners maintain “form” in their arms (while keeping the handhold still) and lean towards each other to generate the “push”. A larger angle of inward lean will generate a greater degree of force towards the joint handhold, and consequently a greater degree of compression. For example, if you place your hands on a wall and lean towards it you will generate compression in your arms. Developing a good sense for static compression can help leading and following static moves that require leans, etc.

“Dynamic compression” is generated if both partners maintain “form” in their arms and move so that there is a net velocity towards each other, i.e. either both partners are moving toward each other, or one partner is moving faster toward their partner than their partner is moving away. A larger magnitude net velocity toward each other will generate a greater degree of force towards the joint handhold, and consequently a greater degree of compression. For example, if you place your hands on a wall and “fall” slightly towards it, you will generate an increasing dynamic sense of compression in your arms. Developing a good sense for dynamic compression can help leading and following moves that require acceleration and deceleration, etc.

Tension

Tension is a state where both ends of an arm (handhold) have a net force applied away from the centre, i.e. an inwards “push”⁵².

“Static tension” is generated if both partners maintain “form” in their arms (while keeping the handhold still) and lean away from each other to generate the “push”. A larger angle of outward lean will generate a greater degree of force away from each other, and consequently a greater degree of tension. For example, if you hold on to a wall and lean away from it you will generate tension in your arms. Developing a good sense for static tension can help leading and following static moves that require leans, etc.

“Dynamic tension” is generated if both partners maintain “form” in their arms and move so that there is a net velocity away from each other, i.e. either both partners are moving away from each other, or one partner is moving faster away from their partner than their partner is moving towards them. A larger magnitude net velocity away from each other will generate a greater degree of force away the joint handhold, and consequently a greater degree of tension. For example, if you place your hands on a wall and “fall” slightly away from it, you will generate an increasing dynamic sense of tension in your arms. Developing a good sense for dynamic tension can help leading and following moves that require acceleration and deceleration, etc.

Learning Compression, Tension And Connection

The compression and tension exercises can be mixed so that partners practise the feeling of moving from compression to tension and vice versa. Since the amount of compression and tension depends on the size and weight of the partners, it is a good idea to swap around to get a better idea of how this can vary.

The compression and tension exercises are described as partner exercises, but they can be extended to say four partners arranged as the sides of a box leaning towards or away from the centre.

Compression And Connection

The amount of compression indicated in the exercise should be ideal for the leader to use as an unambiguous lead for the follower to move backwards.

The (non-zero) amount of compression that takes the slack out of the handhold so that both partners are prepared to move immediately can be considered as that suitable for both partners to retain a connection with each other without moving.

Tension And Connection

The amount of tension indicated in the exercise should be ideal for the leader to use as an unambiguous lead for the follower to move forwards.

The (non-zero) amount of tension that takes the slack out of the handhold so that both partners are prepared to move immediately can be considered as that suitable for both partners to retain a connection with each other without moving. For example, many West Coast Swing moves include an “anchor” step, which partners use to reestablish a strong dance connection, so that the lead can be immediate in the next step, without having to take up any slack.

Practising Following By Compression

The follower faces the leader; the follower keeps their (right) arm relatively rigid, and places their (right) hand on the leader's upper chest. The follower closes their eyes, so that they can concentrate solely on the information from the lead, i.e. the compression in the handhold. The leader mixes walking forwards (possibly with gentle turns) and stopping, as the follower follows the leader's movements by walking backwards. In a class, the leader should stop/move to avoid collisions, as couples meander around the floor mixing about. Ideally, the follower's hand should never leave the leader's chest, there should be no collisions and the leader should be able to direct the follower's movements easily. Leader and follower can swap roles to experience the difficulties the other may find.

Other practise positions are possible, if followers find that it is too intimate to place a hand on the leaders chest (or vice versa), although other positions may increase the number of “joints” in the dance hold. For example, followers can place both hands on the leader's shoulders, or use a practise hold, i.e. the leader's arms are outside the follower's arms and both partners hold each other's left forearm in their right hand (below the elbow).

Practising Following By Keeping Connection

The follower is on the left of the leader; the follower keeps their (right) arm relatively rigid, and places their (right) hand in the small of the leader's back. The follower closes their eyes, so that they can concentrate solely on the information from the lead, i.e. the connection in the handhold. The leader mixes walking forwards (possibly with gentle turns) and stopping, as the follower follows the leader's movements by walking forwards. In a class, the leader should stop/move to avoid collisions, as couples meander around the floor mixing about. Ideally, the follower's hand should never leave the leader's back, there should be no collisions and the leader should be able to direct the follower's movements easily. Leader and follower can swap roles to experience the difficulties the other may find.

Wax On, Wax Off

Obviously, this exercise can be varied by the leader changing handholds, or by mixing several deliberate turns with “wax on, wax off” figures.

Leading On The Spot

Where Does The Lead Originate?

The connection between partners is usually one or more handholds, each of which has a number of joints that can be locked and unlocked, i.e. leader's shoulder, leader's elbow, leader's wrist, follower's wrist, follower's elbow and follower's shoulder. In Modern Jive as in many swing dances, the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints are usually kept locked in position, so that the lead is generally a “body” lead, e.g. from the pectorals (chest), that is transferred through the locked shoulder keeping the elbow locked at a fixed angle (close to and slightly in front of the body) through to the hands and thence to the follower. Using a “body” lead can help smooth the lead e.g. if the leader's shoulder or elbow joints are unlocked and they create the lead by moving their elbow backwards. Leading from the upper body provides the steady arm necessary for leading well, and also means that the arm can “absorb” (and return) some of the follower's compression or tension without the leader's elbow being pushed or pulled too far backwards or forwards (and vice versa). Obviously, different moves may require the shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints to be unlocked to differing extents, but the joints should be locked in the normal waist level handhold.

As the lead is driven from the upper body, in more advanced moves the arm movements or footwork can be separated from the direction of the lead. For example, the leader can provide a static base for the follower to swivel against, and hence there is no direct relationship between the leader's footwork and the lead.

A Robust Dance Frame

Limbs in the body are generally controlled through pairs of muscles. One set of muscles takes the limb away from the body (abductors) and one set of muscles takes the limb towards the body (adductors) [The Muscle Book] — rotational joints are more complicated, but muscles will tend to occur in pairs to balance each other.

In a robust dance frame both sets of muscles in the arms should be working, i.e. both the abductors and the adductors — acting against each other even when “relaxed”. A robust dance frame is fixed in the sense that it can resist movement in any direction — but which is sufficiently malleable that it can be changed rapidly because the muscles can be relaxed quickly. Hence, a sudden change of lead direction shouldn't have a large impact on the follower's handhold and dance frame. For example, if the lead places the handhold under tension and only the abductor muscles are used to pull, and then the lead switches the handhold to compression there will be a period while the abductor muscles relax (from pulling) and the adductor muscles take over to push. For example, if the lead places the handhold under compression and only the adductor muscles are used to push, and then the lead switches the handhold to tension there will be a period while the adductor muscles relax (from pushing) and the abductor muscles take over to pull. Obviously, a robust dance frame should be robust in all three dimensions, so that the arms shouldn't be “weak” in any direction; be it left, right, away, towards, up or down.

The effect of using both sets of muscles can be contrasted in the following exercises:

The technique of using both sets of muscles can be used to smooth movements can be applied to all your dancing to achieve a more graceful effect, e.g. to generate a smooth movement when making arm lines, etc.

Lead Safely

Aside from floor craft, leaders also need to lead safely, releasing hold quickly if there is any indication that the follower may be hurt, e.g. if there's an unexpected resistance in the handhold.

Lead Early

Start the lead and follow dialogue early (even before the music) as you lead your follower onto the dance floor — if you can't wow them with your dancing, perhaps you can impress them with your confident approach.

Action And Reaction

All moves (even the first) start with a preparation phase, which is often (but not necessarily) a counter movement. The lead for a move also means leading the preparation, a good leader will incorporate the preparation for the next move towards the end of the current move. The follow for a move means following from the preparation phase, not waiting until the current move finishes.

Lead Moves Early

Leaders should give followers enough time to “decipher” and follow the lead. Hence, leaders must decide on the next move (fragment) and lead it as early as possible. The worst idea for leaders is to change their minds at the last moment, even if it seems to be a much better idea — a follower may sense the leader's indecision — regardless, the lead will be too late to determine which move was eventually led.

Finish The Follower's Lead First

Gentlemen, make sure that the lady finishes first.

Leaders should make sure that the follower has been led clearly, before dancing their own part of the move.

Lead Smoothly

When possible, build the lead up smoothly fractionally before the follower should take some action. For example, build the tension or compression slightly before leading the follower to move — rather than pulling or pushing them abruptly — so that they already have an idea what move you want them to dance.

Start Simple

If you are dancing with a new partner, don't immediately start with your most complicated moves — take it slow — and gradually see how far you can both take the dance. If you want to lead a complicated move, try leading a simpler (more conventional) variation first to see if that is recognised. For example, before leading a Cronin Spin with a right-to-right handhold, try leading the move with the more conventional left-to-right handhold, to check that the simpler move can be led and followed well.

Lead Into Space

Moves where the follower travels across the dance floor, e.g. a Travelling Return, will obviously breakdown if the leader obstructs the follower — so leaders need to lead the follower into space, and move out of the follower's path, i.e. move off the follower's line.

Leaders can also turn 90^o (so that they are at right angles to the follower) which should increase the amount of space for their follower — assuming that the leader's breadth (front-to-back) is less than their width (left-to-right). Some Modern Jive teachers term this technique as the leader “opening a door” as the leader comes off of the follower's line and rotates to open a gap, and “closing a door” as the leader comes back onto (and block) the follower's line and rotates back to face. This technique is used in several slotted dances, including: West Coast Swing , and cross-body salsa.

Give The Follower Room

Moves where the follower starts in dance hold, turns in place, and is then taken back into dance hold, e.g. a First Move Salsa, need leaders to provide room for the follower to give them the maximum opportunity to successfully follow the move, i.e. so that their movement is not slowed, or otherwise restricted.

Take The Follower's Room Away

Leaders can clarify the lead by limiting the follower's movement options, by obviously blocking areas of the dance floor with their (i.e. the leader's) body.

Lead Clearly

Good floor craft and a smooth, clear, consistent lead with few “surprises”⁵⁴ will help give a follower confidence in their leader's abilities — an unrecognised move may cause a hesitation, if your leads are unclear. Clarity in leading is essential in earning a follower's trust.

Be Aware How Your Arms Move, When Leading

Think about the difference between linear and a circular leads — how the leader's hands should move (and follow through).

Use A Quiet Handhold

Use the clearest lead, not the most forceful, for example, “following through” the leading motion can help make the lead clearer. Reduce any noise in the lead — remove any movements that might make it more difficult to follow, e.g. to move the follower in a straight line, the lead must first be in a straight line.

Keep hand, body and foot movements separate.

Bouncing Hands

The beat is always present in the music, so there is no need to beat out the musical beat by bouncing the hands. A bouncy handhold is the dancing equivalent of hiccoughs⁵⁵ (some people term it cocktail shaking). Just as hiccoughs make conversation difficult, bouncing hands impede the lead and follow connection. The bouncing motion may not only shake your partner, but will probably cause them to make their dance frame less rigid (as they will allow the joints in the hand, arm, and shoulders to twist to accommodate the bouncing movement) which will make leading and following more difficult. Also the up and down bounce may overwhelm any other leading motion in the handhold (or mean that other leading motions have to become more forceful, so that they can be “heard” above the “noise” of the bouncing hands). Lastly, a bouncy handhold is simply tiring to lead or follow, it's a habit that is best avoided when possible.

Maximise The Lead

Leaders should lead all of their partner, e.g. not just their hand, or arm.

Leading The Follower To Move Backwards

Followers place a large amount of trust in their leaders when they are led, and move backwards without looking.

In whips and other moves where the leader leads the follower backwards in a cuddle (basket) hold, the leader should indicate how far they would like the follower to travel. For example, while the leader holds the follower's hands in their fingers, the leader can use the heel of their hands (or their thumbs) behind the follower's back as a guide to slow and stop the follower, so that the leader leads the follower to travel the desired distance backwards.

Slotted Moves

Slotted moves are clearer to lead than other techniques — as the lead is in a single clear direction forwards or backwards, rather than turning, or rotating the follower.

Learning Slotted Moves

Slotted moves can be learnt, or practised, near to a wall (so that it is parallel to one edge of the slot and prevents the dance drifting.

Blocks

Blocks should brake the follower smoothly and early in the move by building resistance quickly, rather than leading them as if the follower suddenly hits a brick wall. Leads (especially blocks) are clearest against rigid body parts, e.g. wrists, hips, shoulders and arms — rather than leading the block against fingers (hands) which can flex, making it harder to follow as the lead will be reduced as it is absorbed.

Single-Handed Moves

Single-handed moves can be prepared as the double-handed version, so that the move starts with a lead using both hands to clarify the initial stage of the move, releasing the “extra” hand shortly afterwards. For example, a Travelling Return can be prepared as a double-handed version where the extra left-to-right handhold is released shortly after the initial lead is given, making the move clearer for the follower.

Transitioning From Single-Handed Moves Into Double-Handed Moves

Moves are often described (as in this guide) as a step away and offer, to achieve a double-handed position — but this means that there is only one step and one chance to get into that double-handed position. Where possible try to get into the next (double-handed) position as early as possible, e.g. if the follower is dancing a Return or Travelling Return the leader can place their free (right) hand on the follower's left shoulder as the follower turns, letting it slide down the followers left arm until the double handhold is acquired — this technique means that there is more time to take up a double-handed position, and if the catch is missed the free hand can be offered as “normal” when stepping away from each other.

Sneaking A Right-To-Left Handhold

The leader can “sneak” a right-to-left handhold using a similar technique to that used in getting a double handhold, by leading a Return or Travelling Return on a left-to-right handhold and the leader can place their free (right) hand on the follower's left shoulder as the follower turns, letting it slide down the followers left arm (as the left-to-right hands are released) so that the right-to-left handhold is acquired.

Double-Handed moves

When leading a double-handed move, lead with both your left hand and your right hand, rather than only leading with your preferred hand (and not leading at all with the other) — this has the benefit that the lead will be twice as clear, the leader will practise leading with their other hand and the follower will also get some idea of following with their other hand.

Transitioning From Double-Handed Moves Into Single-Handed Moves

Don't just release the hand when you go from a double-handed move into a single-handed one, e.g. from a loophole into a Return. Use the hand that you are releasing to provide an extra lead before your release it, e.g. if releasing the follower's left hand and the next move has a clockwise rotation, then take the follower's left hand out to their left to start them rotating clockwise (almost like a spin) — which will reinforce the lead from the other hand.

Sways And Baskets — Entry

On a right-to-right handhold the lead to enter a Sway position from facing is to draw a (mirrored) “J”-shape, initially pulling the hands forwards to start the follower moving, and then taking the hands to the leader's right, towards the leader's right hip, to rotate the follower.

Sways And Baskets — Exit

Maximise the lead, e.g. in a Sway or Basket use the entire arm pressing against the follower's back to lead the follower when exiting, rather than just leading with the hand.

In a “man-sway” position, the leader can lead the follower to circle (with them) clockwise, by pushing the follower's right arm backwards with their back. Similarly, the leader can lead the follower to circle (with them) anticlockwise, by pushing the follower's left arm forwards with their tensed stomach muscles.

Wraps

In complex wraps, e.g. the Flingy Flung, the follower should have their spare hand available when wrapped in, i.e. over the top of the handhold — leaders should encourage this by leading the wrap so that the joint handhold is kept low (slightly under waist height).

Walking Moves

Take clear definite steps when walking so that your partner can feel how and when you move — don't shuffle or drag your feet.

Teapot Position

When the follower is in a Teapot position on the leader's right side, the leader can encourage the follower to walk around them clockwise — by releasing the follower's right hand (so that the remaining left-to-right handhold is across the leader's back), the leader can then subtly rotate their shoulders clockwise, which pushes against the follower's right arm, leading them to walk around the leader.

Hammerlock Moves

Where possible the hammerlock should be “set up”, by keeping the follower's hand that will bend behind their back, close to the hip on the same side — it is more difficult to bend an arm into a hammerlock if it is initially held to one side, i.e. away from the body. The hammerlock should be led low (under waist height) to differentiate it from other moves, and to encourage the follower to “break their shoulder”. The leader can encourage the arm to bend into the hammerlock by slightly rotating the handhold.

When leading a hammerlock move, the leader should ensure that they bring the follower's hand lower than her elbow. If a hammerlock is lead with the follower's hand at the same height as their elbow, then their forearm will be horizontal and effectively block the follower from turning in to the hammerlock position.

Gliding Moves

The leader can maximise the lead in “gliding moves” by dragging their hand lightly across the follower's back, to indicate how both partners are travelling relative to each other, and also as a cue that the leader may take up a new handhold (by continuing to slide their hand down the follower's arm).

Lead The Follower, Not Their Feet

Don't lead the follower to perform steps, rather lead the follower's body, i.e. their centre of mass⁵⁶.

To lead the follower to place their weight onto their left foot, move their weight / centre of mass over their left foot.

To lead the follower to step to the left move their weight slightly “past” their left foot, the follower will step left with their weight to “compensate”, etc.

Similarly, moving the follower's weight in other directions, e.g. right, forwards, backwards, etc., should encourage the follower to move, or step in that direction.

“Larger” leads will encourage the follower to move further, but still keeping weight on their left foot, e.g. as a triple-step, etc.

If the leader lifts the follower's weight slightly up towards one side, then this will encourage the follower to lift their leg / foot on that side.

If the follower's weight is moved sideways during a slight lift / lower, then this should encourage the follower to lunge in the led direction.

Lead Often

When moves are taught or demonstrated (as in this guide) the lead is considered as a single entity per step, or per beat — however, you may find that considering the lead as a gradual process, or as a series of subtle “sub-leads” (micro-leads) may be more useful.

Fingertip leads

A fingertip lead, i.e. keeping contact in a “handhold” by just overlapping one or two finger joints, will effectively lengthen the handhold. This technique is useful for moves that involve a multitude of twists and turns — as the hands will “disconnect” easily, should there be a problem. Additionally, this technique can be useful for moves such as baskets, and moves that require the handholds to wrap around the follower's/leader's body.

Lead To Avoid Confusion

Lead the entire move or sequence — even if you only know one ending, your partner may know dozens — so don't assume that just leading the start of a move will be enough for them to follow what you “meant”.

Don't restrict yourself to leading the move that you intend — if the move can be confused with other moves, then provide extra feedback to avoid confusion. For example, in a First Move Sway: as the follower comes into the leader's right side they transfer their right hand into his right hand, still keeping it in the small of the follower's back. To avoid the follower over-turning (e.g. into a Backhander) the leader can keep hold behind the follower's right hip.

Lead Followers As Individuals

Followers are individuals (with individual physical characteristics) and need to be led individually — the amount and type of lead will differ (even for the same music and moves)⁵⁷.

Other Leading Options

Following With The Eyes

The follower can follow the leader without a handhold by keeping “square” to the leader, i.e. keeping their body parallel to the leader's chest, and by moving to keep their body parallel to the leader's chest, and maintaining definite eye-contact. One example in Modern Jive is the Glider. Some dancers term this “flash-lighting”, i.e. keeping a torch (in your chest?) aiming at your partner — this technique is used by followers dancing Argentine tango, where it's called “dancing heart to heart”.

“Shadow” Leading

Leading without a “real” handhold.

Talk To Your Partner

It's sometimes useful to ask the follower to take some action, e.g. I tend to ask the follower to stand still if I'm doing a Half Nelson to avoid embarrassing collisions!

Leg Leads

In close dance styles such as Blues, Ballroom Tango, etc. where the leader's legs and the follower's legs are “meshed”, the leader can use upper thigh (or knee) contact to provide a slight pressure to lead the follower to move their leg.

Knee Leads

A “fun” blues move, is for the leader to move their right “inside” knee repeatedly left and right — slightly knocking the inside of the follower's right and left knees in alternating fashion — literally a knock-knee'd move.

Foot leads

If you have a good relationship with your partner, you can use your foot to lead theirs. For example, from a Blues' dance hold you can use the right (inside) foot to slide out the follower's left foot out to your right — be careful if you can side-lunge further than your partner. You can then use your left (outside) foot to drag the follower's right foot to your right — so that both of you close your feet together, as you move to the right. This is somewhat similar to sandwiches and other footwork in Argentine tango.

Varying The Lead

Ideally, leaders will use a selection of different leads, rather than concentrating on a single variety of lead — varying the leading style will help maintain interest in the dance for both partners.

Varying The “Volume”

Given a degree of tone in each partner's arms (and hence in the overall dance frame), a good leader will impart little extra force into a lead other than that provided by the follower — but will simply reuse and redirect it as needed. This “judo” approach to leading makes leads smoother and less staccato, matching the force to each follower — as the follower provides most of the energy in this approach, it can help the leader save energy, dance longer, and possibly even “look cooler”.

Vary the “force” in the lead, rather than keeping it constant. It can be interesting to see how small a lead can be and still be followed successfully.

Varying The “Assertiveness”

Leaders can often be prescriptive in their leads — varying the tone of the lead will make your dance more interesting. Some examples include:

Varying The Leading “Style”

Try varying the leading style: both to fit the follower, and the music — it reflects the leader's dance style, but also affects the lead. A more enthusiastic leading style (think Tigger from “Winnie the Pooh”) may fit fast music, whereas a more aloof (cooler) lead may be more appropriate for slower Blues music.

One leading style is for the leader to make the look bigger by moving the hands in the opposite direction during a preparation phase. For example, in the first step of the American Spin when led with a left-to-right handhold the leader can prepare by bringing the hands to the left — initiating a slight anticlockwise preparation for himself (and slight clockwise preparation for the follower), so that the next step is bigger (and more impressive) — this preparation phase also makes the lead clearer.

Leading Injured Followers

It is possible to lead an injured follower and have enjoyable dances, if both partners are careful — shadow leading doesn't require a handhold.

Leading A Follower With An Injured Hand

If the follower has a single injured hand then a large number of moves can be danced successfully — obviously leads should start the dance using the uninjured hand — the main difficulty lies in ensuring that the leader doesn't accidentally catch the “wrong” hand — it helps a lot if the follower remembers not to offer their injured hand.

Depending on the locality of the injury it may be possible to modify moves that normally involve a hand catch or block, so that the leader catches a shoulder or other part of the arm with the injured hand; or possibly another area on the same side of the follower's body, e.g. a hip.

If the follower's right hand is injured, then the leader may also need to mirror “standard” moves, so that the dominant handhold used is right-to-left rather than the conventional left-to-right handhold.

Following When Leading

One powerful technique in social dancing is for the leader to learn to “follow the follower” — if something goes awry with a lead and the follower doesn't necessarily move as expected, then the leader compensates by following the follower so that the move keeps flowing. For example, if the lead for a follower to step towards the leader is missed, then the leader can simply move themselves to close the gap between them and the follower. Similarly, if a follower doesn't complete an exact 360^o spin, then the leader can simply step around so that the move still ends with both partners facing each other.

Following

Don't anticipate — no lead means no follow.
Don't hold on
Don't let go.

Following is the art of interpreting a lead, without anticipating a lead. Unfortunately, the human mind is designed to identify patterns and sequences and to fill in any missing gaps, especially when the sequence is “obvious”. For example, try not to complete the following sentence: “Happy birthday to…” when just about any name or pronoun would complete the sentence in a syntactically valid manner.

Followers are not passive, they are active in almost all aspects of the dance, including: floor craft, and most importantly in the interpretation of the invited lead — which has to be compatible with the leaders intentions, but does not necessarily need to match the leader's precise expectations. Note your following will also affect how you are (subsequently) led — the smoothness of a lead may depend on the timing and how well the previous move was followed.

Dance with your partner. Follow your partner's style and timing — adapt your dancing to match them and you will look more like a couple dancing together, rather than two individuals.

Follow Your Centre

Follow Your Hand

You should follow your hand when dancing in an open dance hold, i.e. when the leader isn't holding your body. When the leader moves your hand/arm, you should move your body so that the hand/arm remains in the same relative position. Hence, your hand/arm shouldn't travel significantly towards/away from your body, and your arm shouldn't significantly move at any of its joints. Some dance styles suggest that you should try to keep your navel directly behind your hand (this is often useful in a double handed hold) while others suggest that you should keep your forearm at right angles to body (with the elbow tucked in) — but both these conventions simply mean that you will “follow your hand”.

Match The Pressure

In an open dance hold, your should try to match your hand pressure with that of your leader. If a leader is pushing towards you, then you should also push towards them. Conversely if a leader is pulling away from you, then you should also pull away from them. Obviously, you should try and match the amount of force that the leader uses, e.g. a gentle lead with a small amount of force should have a gentle “follow”, and a strong lead with a greater amount of force should have a strong “follow”.

Maintain The Connection

Follow The Closest Hand

The hand closest to the lady`s body does the leading.

Prepare To Be Led

In order to follow, you must be prepared to be led, i.e. be prepared to move when led⁵⁸.

Followers shouldn't restrict the leader's leading options — don't lock yourself into positions that you can't easily be led out of.

Give The Leader Your Dance Frame

In particular, the leader needs a dance frame or handhold to be able to lead you. The leader cannot lead your body if there is no connection because your arm is limp, they will only be able to move part of you easily (normally just the arm). Conversely, if you are too rigid, then the leader will still not be able to move you quickly, as you will be “rooted to the spot”.

Followers should avoid keeping their left arm low when the leader tries to come in to a dance hold, as this will (inadvertently) prevent the leader taking up a (comfortable) “closed dance hold” with their right hand on the follower's back. If a follower finds that their left arm is under the leader's right arm in a closed dance hold, the follower should bring it in between both partners and place it on top of the leader's right arm — as there is no way for the leader to lead the followers left arm without releasing from the closed dance hold.

Follow The Leader

Don't dance on autopilot (and anticipate) — try to listen to the lead. If the lead is not clear, stand still and do nothing — don't guess. If you anticipate, you will make it difficult if the leader tries to be creative and tries to dance a variation.

Cruel To Be Kind

Sometimes it can be difficult dancing with a (beginner) leader, and it can be tempting to dance what you anticipate, rather than following their real lead.

If your leader is having trouble with a move in class, then rather than forcing the lead or anticipating, it is probably more useful that you suggest that you show or tell your leader how the step should be danced. An explicit demonstration gives the leader time to learn and concentrate on “the shape of the move”, without confusing the leader's idea of “the lead for the move”.

Follow The Leader's Timing

Followers should take the idea of the musical tempo from their leader, since the leader may not follow the “naive” musical tempo. For example, a leader may dance to fast music at “half time”, or conversely dance to slow music at “double-time”.

Watching The Leader

Followers should “follow the leader's chest” at least in dance hold / circling moves, e.g. if start parallel then stay parallel, if in a “V”-position, don't open or close the angle, unless there is a definite lead to do so.

Even out of (closed) dance hold followers should “watch the leader's chest” — as this is a good indication of the leader's (future) movement.

Moving

If a leader isn't leading you, then you should stay “on the spot” — this doesn't mean that you necessarily need to stand still, you can add your own decorations while waiting for a lead, e.g. arm styling, hip rolls, body ripples, wiggling, etc.

If a leader leaves you in a particular location, then they will expect you to remain there until they lead something new. For example, if a leader disconnects and dances a spin, then they will expect to be able to reconnect and lead you in the same location that they left you. If you start to wander around then this will affect the timing of the reconnection and the subsequent lead and follow, since the leader will take longer to return to a position from which they can lead you.

Similarly, the lead and follow can break down if the “follow” gets ahead of the lead, this can lead to a vicious circle where the leader attempts to speed up to “overtake” the follower, who then speeds up. If a leader doesn't indicate a direction to move, then the follower should remain in-place — the most difficult lead is to lead “nothing”. If a leader indicates a direction to travel, then the follower should move in that direction and continue moving in that direction until the lead changes. Note, that some moves rely on the follower continuing to follow a “previous” lead without an explicit handhold, e.g. Glide.

The lead indicates the direction of travel, rather than providing “motive power”, so followers shouldn't rely on their leaders propelling them. It is important for followers to put their own energy and impetus into the dance — several moves rely on the follower's momentum being used (and redirected) by the leader. Similarly, followers should be able to brake and stop themselves — rather than moving (quickly) and relying on the handhold (and the leader) to stop them, as this makes the lead and follow jerky, e.g. when partners step apart.

Following Hands

Some organisations suggest that follower is responsible in keeping their hand(s) in contact with the leader's hand(s) — until the leader releases that hand. At the very least there is a shared responsibility to avoid the handhold(s) separating.

Keep arms “free” — when wrapped into the leader's side keep your free hand over the joint hands, to avoid it trapping the arm.

Holding

Let go when the leader releases your hand — if you are led into a spin and keep hold after the leader releases you, then it will probably put you both off-balance, and slow your spin down. If hands can be released quickly, then leaders can easily lead fast hand changes, etc.

Taking Hands

If the leader actively offers his hand, then the follower must take it — either with her free hand, or with the hand that is closest⁵⁹ (or the right hand if there is a tie, or if the lead is unclear). For a hand to be offered actively it must be placed in a position so that the follower can easily see it and can see it early, as they finish a particular movement. If the leader wiggles their fingers then this is a “subtle” social dance cue that the hand is “actively” offered for the follower to take. Similarly, a hand that is palm up, or palm facing the follower, is also likely to be being offered actively. For example, one cue that an offered hand will lead a follower into an extra turn (anticlockwise if left hand is offered, clockwise if right hand is offered), is to offer the hand palm facing towards the follower with the thumb pointing down — since it is clearer that the offered hand is not only going to take up the handhold.

If the leader doesn't actively offer his hand, then the follower should not take his hand. Simply because the leader's hand(s) is “available” this shouldn't be interpreted as an invitation for the follower to take one or other.

Offered Hands

An offered hand should be the highest priority for a follower to take — even if the requested arm might be used for styling it should still take the leader's offered hand.

Catching

It is the leader's option to catch the follower's hand (which should be available — or should eventually become available, e.g. after the follower finishes an (unexpected “sabotage”) multiple spin). The leader should catch or actively take the follower's hand, unless the catch is out of their sight, e.g. behind the leader's back as in Confident Hatchback. If the follower tries to catch the leader's hand (to “help”) it makes it harder for the leader to catch a hand moving “unpredictably”. Alternatively, the leader may have decided not to catch the follower's hand, as they are leading something unexpected.

Hammerlocks

If you let your free arm drop to your side when you are in a hammerlock position, then you have effectively locked yourself. The leader won't be able to lead you to rotate and unwind out of the hammerlock, because your free arm will stop your rotation. This style of move is more often seen in dance styles like Salsa, but should also be leadable and followable in Modern Jive

Similarly, if the follower is facing the leader in an open position and has placed their (the follower's) hand on the leader's shoulder, or chest — then this will also act as a lock preventing the leader unwinding the follower by pulling their hammerlocked hand.

Following Arms

In a dance hold (or similar side-by-side positions) the follower should keep their left arm free when they are turned, or spun out. For example, if the follower is on the leader's right side and leaves their left arm across the leader's back, e.g. with their left hand on the leader's left shoulder, then they are likely to hit the leader with their left arm unless they are careful in raising it vertically upwards, just before they are turned, or spun out. Followers must both recognise that the leader is preparing them to turn or spin out, and quickly raise their free (draped) left arm vertically upwards as they turn or spin out — leaving the arm straight up until they are away from the leader.

Placed Hands

If a leader places the follower's hand(s) in a particular locations, then the follower should should leave their hand(s) as they are placed by the leader, e.g. on the leader's shoulder if placed there during a Comb until the leader steps away, or otherwise indicates that the hand can be released.

For example, a leader may place the follower's hand on their own waist — the follower should then keep their hand in contact with the leader's waist if the leader dances a spin. This technique allows the leader to easily find the follower's hand as they finish dancing the spin.

Similarly, the leader may place the follower's arm in to a hammerlock position — the follower should leave their arm in that position until the leader makes a different request, e.g. offering a hand. This technique allows the leader to release that hand and “disconnect” from their follower, and then to easily take up that hand in the same position that it was released and “reconnect”.

Offering Hands

When offering a free hand, then keep the hand slightly cupped — almost as if it was in a handhold — this will make it easier for the leader to take your hand, without fear of the handhold slipping (as might be the case were you to offer a flat hand).

Dance Frame

Closed Dance Hold

The closed dance hold in Modern Jive is less constrained than in other dances — since feet and legs are rarely interleaved, and hence footwork rarely needs to be synchronised. In most swing dances, partners can use different footwork even in a closed dance hold, e.g. a leader may single step (or double step) while their follower triple-steps, or vice versa.

Heart To Heart, Non-Offset (Argentine Tango ) Position

In a non-offset (Argentine Tango like) closed dance hold partners are parallel facing each other but will not be offset, sometimes called dancing “heart to heart”. In milonga style, both partners lean their chests forwards together, to form an “A” frame, so that there is an embrace (dance hold) with enough room between their feet so that both partners can walk forwards or backwards on opposite legs without risk of collision.

Conventional Slightly Offset (Ballroom Dance) Position

In a conventional (ballroom dance) closed dance hold partners' bodies will be parallel and slightly offset⁶⁰ and may be in contact near their midriffs, with the upper body leaning slightly backwards (away from each other). The leader and follower are in the “mush” (also known as cup and saucer position), with feet alternating as follows (from the leader's left to right): leader's left foot, follower's right foot, leader's right foot, follower's left foot. Offsetting the feet allows both partners to take large steps forwards or backwards on opposite legs without treading on each other, or kick safely between each other's feet.

Half Offset Dance Position

One unusual dance position is for the leader and follower to be offset by half a body width, this allows the leader and follower to step forwards or backwards on the same legs — the effect is similar to a three-legged race where partners face each other.

“Loose” Dance Hold

A closed dance hold with space between partners, similar to a non-offset position but with more room between partners, e.g. like the position at count four of a lindy turn.

Walks

In a loose dance hold, partners don't need to be in the mush, i.e. offset from each other, since there is more room for both partners to move, e.g. when walking in dance hold. The leader can use a Lindy Hop dance hold with his right hand high on the follower's left shoulder to lead the follower to walk forwards — the leader can maximise the lead by spreading their fingers (taking care not to bruise their partner). The left-to-right handhold (with compression) can be used to lead the follower to walk backwards. The right hand on the follower's shoulder (with tension) can be used to lead the follower to walk forwards.

Jockey Position

The jockey position is an angled looser variation of the closed dance hold, partners are in a loose dance hold, forming a “V”-shape (when viewed from above), i.e. leader's right leg and torso are close to the follower's left leg and torso, whereas there is a larger gap between the leader's left leg and torso and the follower's right leg and torso. The leader can hold the follower's right hand in his left hand (with elbows bent) in a closed version — or without an explicit handhold in an open version.

In jockey position, the leader's right arm should act as a hinge, so that the leader can open and close the dance frame, to increase or decrease the size of the “V”-shape between the leader and the follower.

Holding Your Partner

The leader typically holds the follower's right hand in his left hand, either at eye-height as in ballroom, high as in lindy jig-walks, slightly lower as in Jive, or held at waist height or even on the leader's thigh, as in Blues. The leader should not use his left hand to “drive” the move, but simply provide some slight additional feedback for the lead and follow. It should be possible to lead the moves without using the left-to-right handhold — for example, the leader should be able to release his left hand (and the follower's right hand) in dance hold, when the floor is crowded, to avoid colliding if other dancers are nearby. One useful option is for the leader to use the heel of their left hand (against the heel of the follower's right hand) when in dance hold — as this avoids the possibility of gripping the follower's fingers too tightly.

The hand(s) holding your partner's body should have fingers closed to form a smooth “cup” — if the fingers are splayed apart then the separate fingers may poke your partner. A smooth grip will prevent fingers getting tangled and make releasing your partner from dance hold quick and smooth — improving the lead and follow.

In closed dance holds — the leader holds the follower's back with his right hand and arm, for example, under the follower's left shoulder-blade for a more “formal” Ballroom dance position, on the follower's waist as in a lindy circle, on the follower's left shoulder blade (near their left armpit) as in a lindy swing-out position, at the base of the follower's spine as in salsa, or right around the follower's back as in a tango embrace. The right hand and right arm are used to “guide” the move — maximising the lead for the follower.

The follower places their left hand on top of the leader's right shoulder or upper arm (triceps). If there is a large height difference, since followers must be able to leave closed dance hold quickly. If the follower holds the leader's back, there's a risk of their left arm getting trapped behind the leader's back, or under their right arm. Similarly, if the follower keeps their left palm (heel of their left hand) over the leader's right shoulder against the leader's chest, this allows the follower to “encourage” the leader to keep extra separation.

Support Your Weight

Both partners should support their own weight at all times especially the weight of their hands and arms — leaning on your partner will make you feel extremely heavy. Even in Blues, or Balboa, the follower shouldn't cling onto the leader, and vice versa of course.

A Robust Closed Dance Frame

Keep the hands “quiet” in closed dance hold. Similarly, avoid excessive swaying in dance hold, or rocking the left-to-right hands unnecessarily up and down — the slang term is “pumping water” — this normally happens with enthusiastic beginners, the problem is that (irrespective of the “coolness”, or lack thereof) the sheer effort of dancing that way will tire both partners out after only a couple of dances.

The leader and follower should form a rigid dance frame when in close dance-hold, i.e. if the leader turns the rigidity of the dance frame should be reflected in the follower turning a corresponding amount. There may be problems if either partner under, or overturns — especially with in a Lindy Hop swing-out position where the leader's hand is high on the follower's back. A firm dance frame will also prevent your partner coming too close and stepping on your toes, especially if you are in-line, rather than in the mush. However, pushing or pulling too hard can make you feel uncomfortably heavy to your partner.

The lead in dance hold is by the leader shifting the dance frame by rotating their torso and pulling or pushing slightly with their right hand on the follower's back — the leader shouldn't try to drive the motion by pushing, or pulling, with their left hand.

Open Dance Hold

In the open facing position, partners hold one or more hands while stood apart. The rigidity, or tension in the dance frame is now replaced by compression and tension in the handholds — sometimes called “tone”. For the leader, this compression and tension is essential to help him lead the follower. For the follower, the connection (force-feedback) aids the interpretation of leads, e.g. by keeping compression in the handholds the leader is much less likely to tread on the follower, since they will be at arm's length. If the handholds collapse, i.e. so called jelly, or spaghetti arms, this reduces the effectiveness of the lead. Additionally, if the follower's elbows are pushed behind their body (during the compression phase) then the separation between both partners will reduce, which lets the leader step in closer (and possibly tread on their partner). In general, partners generate tension and compression by moving apart from and towards each other — alternatively, partners can twist slightly away from each other to build tension; and twist slightly towards each other to build up compression.

In open dance hold, the handhold will build up tension as both partners separate from each other, and will build up compression as both partners close together. There should be equal “tone” in the handhold from both partners. The feeling of the tension is similar to pulling on a spring, or strong elastic band, with continuous feedback and the tension gradually increasing. The feeling of the compression is similar to pumping a bicycle tyre, with continuous feedback and the compression gradually increasing. Keep this compression, or tension, building throughout the entire step, rather than say only at the start — keeping the feedback throughout the entire step will give you constant information about your partner's position and speed. Keeping the tension and compression smooth will also help the lead and follow, by enabling both partners to keep their footing, etc. Similarly, keeping the handhold elastic, rather than a fixed length, reduces any whiplash when stepping away.

Handhold

The follower's hand should be placed on top of the leader's hand — since it is more difficult to lead without a strong grip if the leader's hand is on top of the follower's hand. The conventional open dance handhold is a “hook” grip — the follower's (right) hand forms a loose arch that is placed over the leader's fingers. This arrangement is similar to a “railway-carriage coupling” If the leader pushes their hand / arm forwards, the top (front) of their fingers will press against the heel of the follower's palm. If the leader pulls their hand / arm backwards, then the palm-side of their fingers will pull against the palm side of the follower's fingers. If the handhold collapses, then this subtle lead will be lost, whereas if the handhold is maintained, then the lead will remain while both partners move forwards / backwards. Similarly, if the grip / handhold is tight, then the hands will not move relative to each other and the lead to move forwards or backwards will only be discernible at the elbow, or shoulder. Keep a light handhold, so that the handhold can break quickly — key in moves that could wrench an arm, e.g. Archie Spin.

Try leading with just the first finger, or the first two fingers (rather than using the whole hand) — it generally makes the lead gentler. A one or two finger handhold also helps when a follower grips tightly onto a leader's hand — as the leader's finger(s) will rotate more easily (than their entire hand) in the follower's grip.

A light grip can be useful if your partner insists on jerking the handhold as the connection is likely to break — rather than your arm. Alternatively, try moving closer — to create some “slack” in the arms, and hence reduce the tension in the handhold.

If you dance complex wrap moves, then try to keep the fingers as long as possible, e.g. only keeping the first joints of your fingers bent slightly against the first joints of your partner's fingers, so that the length of the handhold effectively increases.

Keep Hands At Waist Height

In open position, handholds should be at waist height of the shorter partner, this makes the hold comfortable for both partners — otherwise, the shorter partner will have to keep their extended arm raised, which gets tiring. If there is a large height difference, then compromise.

Keep Elbows Tucked In

In an open dance hold the follower needs to keep a reference point relative to the hands (where the lead will occur) — in some swing dances the follower may keep their centre of gravity (navel) behind the hands — in Modern Jive this is often less useful, since the hands are often kept to the side of the body. Hence, a technique to find a good reference point is for both partners (and the follower in particular) to keep their elbows in towards the body — this has the effect that the follower's arm will be at right angles to their body and hence if the arm is kept at this tangent, the follower can follow angular variations.

Starting A Move

There should be a rubber-band effect as the tension is accumulated and released within the handhold.

In the starting position both partners face each other, about two cubits apart, for example, with a left-to-right handhold, which is comfortable at approximately waist height, elbows should be bent.

From the start position the leader leads the follower to step backwards (on the follower's left foot) by pushing slightly backwards with his left hand against their right hand, as the leader steps backwards with weight on their right foot.

There should be some “tone” in the handhold, so that the follower can detect the leader's lead. Note that the follower should “resist”, so that the hands remain equi-distant from both partners — if the follower does not resist, then the lead collapses with the follower's hand going backwards, and the leader's going forwards.

To Circle…

Some teachers use as an semi-circle (sometimes called a “C”) to signal that partners should step apart (or that the follower is to step backwards). The semi-circle is performed outwards from the leader's viewpoint; the man's left hand will rotate anti-clockwise (up–left–down–right–up), and the man's right hand will rotate clockwise (up–right–down–left–up). This hand circling can be reversed, to signal that partners should step together (or that the follower is to step forwards). The semi-circle is performed inwards from the leader's viewpoint; the man's left hand will rotate clockwise (down–left–up–right–down), and the man's right hand will rotate anti-clockwise (down–right–up–left–down).

Hand circling (and pushing away) can provide some information — it provides an obvious indication of the beat for both partners to “reset” and step apart, i.e. that one move finishes as a new move starts. Generally, the speed that the hand is circled and its size (to a lesser extent), is indicative of the speed of the move — or a consequence that the step apart will be necessarily quicker.

…Or Not To Circle

Modern Jive is the only dance style that uses a semi-circle to signal that partners should step apart⁶¹ (or that the follower is to step backwards) — if circling the hands becomes an ingrained habit, then it may cause you problems when dancing other styles, e.g. Lindy Hop , or West Coast Swing .

Hand circling cannot be assumed by a follower as the only lead for them to step backwards. Obviously, if the leader doesn't hold the follower's hand, then the leader cannot lead a hand circle — hence any lead for the follower to step backwards, can not be led with a “C” when the follower's hand is placed on a part of the leader's body, e.g. chest, shoulder, hip, etc. If a leader wishes to step forwards as they lead their follower to step backwards (e.g. a Manhattan) then this lead is more difficult if the leader must also lead a hand circle.

Circling the hands is a matter of taste, but it can cause problems if taken to extremes in Modern Jive For example, circling the hands makes it difficult to maintain a strong connection in the handhold. Similarly, circling the hands can hide, or mask more subtle leads — these extra movements are termed a “noisy lead”. Some teachers argue that a follower should keep a known orientation to their hand, which means that any circling motion in a single handhold should cause a follower to swivel.

Some teachers suggest that circling should be avoided, and that a step away is best led as a simple push, and a step towards as a simple pull. However, a pull/push technique requires a good connection in the handhold — but it does maintain that connection in the handhold.

A push away (without a hand circle) also provides information — it provides an obvious indication of the beat for both partners to step apart, and the amount of compression in the handhold is indicative of the speed that partners should step apart.

Because, hand circling disrupts the connection in the handhold and a push/pull technique requires a good connection in the handhold, the two techniques are not compatible. Hence, followers should adopt the technique used by their leader.

Special Leads

Leading Lunges

Lunges aren't simply a large step in a particular direction — they can look more stylish by contrasting the lowering motion with a preceding rise, i.e. so that the both partners raise slightly, before the lunge onto the leg (and necessarily lowering). If the follower's weight is moved sideways during a slight lift / lower, then this should also encourage the follower to lunge in the led direction.

Using an arm diagonally down across the follower's back works well for leading a “swaying” lunge, etc.

Swivel Handhold

Special case. Some moves need a secure base, and firm grip, especially swivels and twisting moves. The handhold for swivels is often at (or near) shoulder height, with a firm grip — switching the grip from an uncrossed double handhold can be achieved by sweeping the hands out and up in an arc. The leader's hands are outside of the follower's.

Basket / Sway Position

If there is a good lead and follow connection, then it should be possible to keep the momentum gained from entering into the sway / basket position and to use that so that both partners walk backwards for an arbitrary number of steps (possibly with a slight pressure on the follower's right hip and the leader's right arm moving backwards from the follower's back — as a cue for the follower to walk backwards). Only when the leader leads the move to finish (i.e. by the leaders right arm remaining stationary behind the follower's back) should the follower stop (and then be led to exit the move).

Spins, Pirouettes And Turns

Rotations are defined by a dancer rotating their torso about a (vertical) axis, rather than specific leg, arm or head movements (spotting). Hence, the dominant motion is to rotate your torso — this is often taught as rotating the shoulders or hips.

Spins (pirouettes) and turns are just (large) rotations, with or without a handhold. To make the discussion clearer, the following terms will be used:

Dancing A Turn As A Follower

To dance a turn as a follower and allow continuous connection with the leader, the arm to turn under should be at right angles (bent 90 degrees at the elbow) (in a vertical plane) — the upper arm parallel to the floor at shoulder height and the forearm vertical and directly in front of your eye (on the same side as the turning arm). In particular, when dancing a turn the elbow of the turning arm must not drift out to the side of your body (and upwards) as you spin — as this will make you “wider” and more dangerous to dance with (especially if your elbow gets to the height of your partner's face, nose, etc.).

This can be checked as follows: the non-turning arm/hand should be able to hold the turning upper arm comfortably (near to the turning arm's elbow) so that the non-turning arm is also at right angles (bent 90 degrees at the elbow) in a horizontal plane — the upper arm parallel to the floor and pointing straight forwards at shoulder height, the forearm parallel to the floor and parallel to your chest. You should be able to comfortably dance a spin with the arms in this position and the arms should not move relative to your body (and each other).

The wrist of the turning arm should be “cocked back”, i.e. angled slightly backwards towards your head — so that were you to extend your thumb, you would be able to touch the brow of your head.

The fingers of the follower's turning hand should be kept together and curled to form a partial tube (an approximate half cylinder) — so that the leader can fit (and also rotate) two of their fingers pointing vertically down inside the follower's hand. The leader can then lead the turn by drawing a “halo” slightly above the approximate circumference of follower's head, with the leader's fingers rotating inside the follower's handhold as the follower dances their turn. The tubular follower's handhold minimises the risk of the leader losing grip while maximising the leader's ability to be able to lead and maintain connection throughout the entire turn — rather than simply letting the leader to lead the start of the turn and then losing (some) connection until the follower returns back to face.

Practising Turns

It should be possible to dance a turn within the space given by a normal open doorway. If you find that you collide against the doorframe as you rotate, then it is probable that, either:

Dancing A Turn As A Leader

Obviously, when a leader dances a turn under their follower's arm, they are leading themselves. When a leader dances a turn their turning arm should be the same as when a follower dances a turn. However, when a leader dances a turn they should initially have their fingers pointing vertically upwards (inside the follower's tubular handhold). As the leader dances the turn their hand will naturally adjust so that their palm is horizontal and facing the ceiling — this is almost like carrying a tray of drinks high in the air.

Cheating A Rotation

Your hips (and body) will naturally follow the orientation of your feet. If you place a foot so that it is turned out, and then release you weight so that it is placed solely over that foot, then your hips (and body) will turn to match the turn out of the foot place on the ground.

Generating Torsion (The Energy For Rotation)

Dancers will often “prep” (prepare) when they are able to predict that a rotational movement is to going to be danced. Obviously, leaders can accurately predict when they will rotate and can prepare themselves. Followers can prepare themselves when the dance form is such that the lead for a rotational movement is “predictable”, alternatively leaders can obviously lead “preparational” elements to ready their follower for a subsequent rotational movement.

A preparation for a rotational movement is when a dancer creates internal “torsion” — where, for example internal tension is created from the angle of the hips (implicitly defined by the position of the feet) and the angle of the shoulders (implicitly defined by the position of the dance frame and arms). The “torsion” winds a dancer up in such a way that this preparatory rotation opposes the subsequent rotational movement, so that the subsequent rotational movement can be larger, or faster.

One technique to prepare for an anticlockwise rotation, is as follows:

This technique generates an angular difference between the upper and lower halves of the dancer's body — this can be felt as a slight “rotational stretch” near the diaphragm. When the right foot is released, the hips will naturally rotate to turn to the angle of the turned out left foot. If the shoulders are also rotated to release the torsion (internal tension) this will generate additional energy that can be used to drive the rotation.

Arms And Torsion

Many teachers will try and explain a form of torsion, by suggesting that you take arms to the side to prepare for a rotation, and then bring the arms in front of you to “drive” the rotation. This can lead to some problems:

The Point Of Rotation

Rotations are easiest when there is a single unambiguous point to rotate around, and generally the larger the area in contact with the floor, the more friction and hence the harder it becomes to rotate.

However, although a single point implies that any rotation should use a single foot, this isn't a good enough condition as the if the weight is such that the foot is flat, then there are two main areas in contact with the floor, i.e. the “ball” of the foot and the “heel” of the foot.

Hence most rotations will be danced with the weight forwards on the foot⁶², which means that the heel of that foot must be kept off the floor and that the other “non-supporting” foot must also be kept off the floor.

The non-supporting foot should be kept close to the supporting foot when rotating. Note that the distance off the floor doesn't have to be huge, any gap will do — in fact if you keep a large gap between the non-supporting foot and the floor risks tilting your hips and your axis of rotation.

If you let your weight shift as you spin, moving away from the ball of the foot, then this will move your rotational axis — so keep your weight concentrated over the ball of your foot.

As you spin on the ball of one foot, you should find that your free foot should naturally “slot” against the spinning foot, so that the heel of the spinning foot is next to the instep of the free foot.

If you are wearing high heels, then tilt your free foot so that the toe is raised and hence the heel won't protrude as you spin.

Stopping The Rotation

In essence, stopping the rotation is a reverse process: moving from spinning on one foot with the heel off the floor, to standing on one (flat) foot, and then standing with weight on both feet.

This gives a gradual braking process: as the other ball of foot drops to the floor, then the first heel drops, and then the second heel drops — and weight transfers to both feet. Many rotations have a final (led) braking element where one or both partners fully transfer the weight on to the non-spinning foot, and then step backwards on the free foot (which was the foot originally spun upon).

Dancers can also slow down by increasing their moment of inertia, e.g. by moving their arms away from their body. Momentum from rotations can also be reduced by sinking into your knees slightly, when stopping — this grounding motion may help reduce the tendency to fall backwards when stopping abruptly.

In general, finish your rotation facing your partner and on balance — never rely on your partner to keep your balance (by catching you) — any “over rotation” should be deliberate.

To finish a rotation smoothly, dance the rotation with slightly less energy so that the powered element of the rotation finishes early, and then the remainder of the rotation will gradually slow and be completed using the previously generated “angular momentum”.

Finishing A Spin

If you are dancing a spin and know that you will not finish in a joint handhold, then make a definite finish to the spin. For example, bring the hands down (below waist level) and away from the body as you complete the rotation.

The Rotational Axis

Make sure that you have a good, strong, unambiguous upright vertical axis for rotations. It is probably easiest to keep the weight on one leg as you rotate to form a strong axis to rotate about. Obviously, the foot that you are rotating on must be kept under the body. Try to feel that an “axis” passing through that leg, up through that side of the body and up through the shoulder on that side. This notion of a strong axis can be practised by standing with weight definitely on one leg, with the free foot slightly off the floor and close to the foot with weight. In this position it should be possible to rotate by bringing the “free” shoulder forwards or backwards.

Unless the rotation is led (intended) to be a travelling rotation, the rotation axis should be fixed and the rotational should not travel (precession). Obviously, if the rotation has an unintended travelling element (especially spins) you are likely to crash into your partner, other dancers or obstacles. However, if a follower does travel away from the leader when spinning, then it is the leader's responsibility to travel with their follower so that they remain close enough to catch their follower after the spin. If both partners spin and unintentionally travel apart, then this may cause problems — although it does open possibilities for other moves such as a Lindy Hop “Shorty George”, or to add a mimed element to the dance, for example, the lady could beckon (or otherwise encourage) the man to walk towards her — the man could stamp and point commandingly at the floor, to order the lady across (although this might not necessarily be appreciated).

Creating A Strong Vertical Rotational Axis

If your body position doesn't change and your rotation is perfect, you should return to the start position after each 360^o rotation — this mean that if you start “unbalanced” then even if you do a perfect spin you will be unbalanced at the end of each full 360^o rotation, and will probably “fall out” and have to take an extra involuntary step to avoid falling over. If you are only aiming for a single 360^o rotation, then it isn't much of a problem if you “fall out of the rotation” as you can easily compensate for any extra involuntary movement. However, if you are aiming to rotate more than once (360+^o) then taking an extra involuntary step is unlikely to keep you on spinning on the spot. Hence, a strong upright balanced rotational axis is key.

Given that you will be spinning on a single (ball of) foot, and that the other foot will be off the floor you must adjust your posture to compensate — otherwise lifting the non-spinning foot will tend to cause you to tilt your hips, and hence lean away from the vertical towards the side of the supporting leg. To ensure that your axis remains vertical and that your hips remain horizontal when one leg is lifted from the floor, try to “pull up” your body on the side that you are rotating, which should bring your hips back to the horizontal and keep your rotational axis vertical. For a more graceful style, keep both knees and feet close together.

Check that your axis is vertical before the spin…
…check that your axis is vertical during the spin…
…check that your axis is vertical after the spin — otherwise you will “fall out of the spin”.

It can be tempting to “lock the knee” in an attempt to generate a strong axis to rotate about — however, a locked knee won't allow you to adjust your balance while spinning. Hence, it is probably easier to keep balanced by dancing the rotation with a relatively straight leg with a “soft knee”, i.e. slightly bent, since this will give you the chance to make rapid adjustments to your balance while spinning.

Rotation Arms

Obviously, both arms should be kept mirrored and balanced when spinning. Keeping the hands and arms raised above waist height will help raise your centre of gravity, which can also aid rotations.

When spinning, bring your hands together in front of your sternum as you spin will keep your arms symmetric (in an “O”) which in turn will help your balance.

Balance And Maintaining A Strong Vertical Rotational Axis

Make sure that your head is centred over your shoulders, which are centred over your hips (pelvis).

Drawing yourself to your full height and keeping your stomach pulled in and tense, should help to create a strong connection between your shoulders and your hips, and hence help to maintain a strong vertical rotational axis. Making yourself taller and thinner will also decrease your moment of inertia — making it easier (faster) to spin.

If your arms (or body) are limp, then they will move as you spin — changing your axis of rotation, and potentially unbalancing you.

Obviously, you must be balanced as the rotation begins, be balanced during the rotation, and be balanced as the rotation finishes and during any exit.

Rotational Power

Moment Of Inertia

The moment of inertia (I) of a rigid object is the sum of the product of its individual masses (m) and their perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation (d).

I = Sum(m d)

Hence, a tall narrow object (relative to the rotation axis) will have a lower moment of inertia, than would a short wide object (assuming that they are made of the same material).

Angular Momentum

The angular momentum (a) of a rigid object is the product of its moment of inertia (I) and its angular velocity (v).

a = I v

Conservation Of Angular Momentum

In an isolated system, angular momentum (a) is conserved — hence, if the moment of inertia (I) were to be reduced the angular velocity would necessarily increase, and vice versa.

Using Angular Momentum

Although a dancer is not a strictly isolated system, since they will be subject to other forces such as friction, they can still apply the conservation of angular momentum to change how they rotate by modifying their moment of inertia. This is the technique that ice-skaters use to spin faster from a slow spin with a large moment of inertia, e.g. with their arms stretched away from their body, and then increase their rotational speed by reducing their moment of inertia, e.g. by drawing their arms in to their body.

Similarly, dancers can spin slower from a fast spin with a low moment of inertia, e.g. with their arms close to their body, by decreasing their rotational speed by increasing their moment of inertia, e.g. taking their arms away from their body.

Generating Energy For Rotations

It is difficult to generate a rotation without preparation — sometimes called “torqueing”, “winding up” or “prepping” (preparing). Preparation for rotations is to rotate slightly in the opposite direction, either by twisting/swinging arms or by taking a small step to “push off” — Modern Jive is often taught with suggested footwork, although there doesn't have to be specific footwork.

If arms are used to generate energy for rotation, then take both arms to the right to prepare for an anticlockwise rotation, or take both arms to the left to prepare for a clockwise rotation. However, take care to keep the arms in the same horizontal plane, if you raise your arms the vertical impetus may unbalance you.

How Much Energy

If you are well-balanced, then rotations should not require much energy. If you power into a spin too aggressively with too much energy it can unbalance you.

Cheating Rotations

The start of a rotation can be cheated by placing the foot that will be rotated on, so that it points in the direction that the rotation is to occur, effectively reducing the angle to rotate. This technique does not tend to appreciably change the dynamic of the move.

The end of a rotation can be cheated by completing the rotation in the subsequent step, effectively splitting the rotation into two smaller pieces. This technique will change the dynamic of the move when dancing to slow music as it will tend to smooth the movement — however this is less apparent when dancing to fast music.

Modern Jive Rotation Footwork

A single (360^o) rotation in Modern Jive will take one count (or two musical beats) and often include a step back that is led after the rotation for an additional count (or two more musical beats). A double (720^o) rotation in Modern Jive will also take one count (or two musical beats) and often include a step back that is led after the rotation for an additional count (or two more musical beats). Two consecutive single (360^o) rotations in Modern Jive will take two counts (or four musical beats) and often include a step back that is led after the rotation for an additional count (or two more musical beats).

Body position when rotating should be low, smooth and horizontal — there is no need to pirouette balletically, rising up “en pointe”. Feet should be close together when rotating to give a unique axis about which to turn.

The head, shoulders and hips should ideally be vertically above each other while rotating, i.e. symmetric with respect to the axis of rotation. In the first instance, arms and legs should be symmetrical with respect to the axis of rotation. If limbs are held asymmetrically, e.g. rotating on one leg held out to the side, this tends to move the rotation axis as you rotate, making it more difficult to rotate “on the spot”. Similarly, moving your head will shift your axis of rotation — looking at the ground will drop your head and tend to shift your weight forwards — looking up will lift your head and tend to shift your weight backwards.

If you keep arms at your sides then your partner can't catch or stop you.

To improve your rotating overtrain — train for doubles and dance singles, train for triples and dance doubles.

One set of footwork that can be used for basic rotations⁶³ on the spot is:

Coincidentally, this footwork is similar to the footwork used to do single rotations in Salsa.

Obviously other complex rotations and footwork options are possible where the “non-axis” shoulder goes backwards⁶⁴ This type of rotation may seem odd, but it's commonly used, for example when a follower rotates clockwise in hold (twists out) in a first move — the follower will turn clockwise, but their weight will be on their left leg (because the right shoulder goes backwards) — the right foot is free as it is taken backwards. Spins and turns can be danced “backwards” which can remove the need to transfer weight — but may be a confusing concept for beginners.

Practical Rotation Footwork

Theoretically, multiple rotations should still be done on the ball of one foot. In practice, most rotations will be danced with both feet close to each other and near to the floor. This means that the spare non-pivot foot be used to both keep balanced and to help propel the rotation, by pushing on the floor (sometimes called paddling round). A slight variation is to place the non-pivot foot on the ground at the end of each complete rotation (360^o), this can be used to keep your balance and can be used to end the rotation facing your original direction.

Leading Rotations

When leading a rotation, i.e. a turn or a spin, make it progressive — don't accelerate your partner abruptly, it will probably put them off balance. Similarly, when actively leading a turn, build the speed of the turn as the tension in the handhold increases.

If the follower is not in front of the leader when they finish rotating (i.e. after the spin or turn), then the leader should move to close the gap, so that the entry into the next move is closer to the usual starting point (and hence more fluid).

Can lose connection if spin or turn your partner — may be better to step around.

Don't duck when turning.

Turns and spins over multiple beats needn't only be split into equal amounts of rotation — use the parts of the move with most power to drive the turn. E.g. lindy circle, do more turn on the 3+4 step, than on the 5, 6. Obviously, if there is not enough time to make the complete turn, extra “adjustments” can be added afterwards.

Keeping hands out wide, can help your balance when moving, turning and spinning.

Don't look at your feet when spinning, or turning.

Spins (and turns) can either be led counter to the previous motion (preparation), e.g. an American Spin; or be led as a continuation of the previous motion, e.g. a Spot Turn. Counter spins (and turns), like the American Spin are often led using a “ball and socket” grip — the leader cups his hand, while the follower makes a fist — providing a handhold that can separate quickly, which also keeps tension in the follower's arm. Alternatively, some men use their left hand to provide a signal, by blocking the follower's travel forwards.

When leading the follower into a turn or spin from a closed dance hold, the leader should give the follower enough room to be able to release their hand from the leader's shoulder, and for the follower to be able to turn or spin easily. If the leader keeps the follower in tightly, this may result in him locking their arm, and vice versa. Conversely, the follower must keep their arm on top of the leader's arm (not let their arm go behind the leader's body), so that the follower doesn't “lock” against the leader when exiting dance hold.

Leading Travelling Rotations

When leading a travelling rotation, the leader should lead the follower to travel, before leading the follower to rotate.

Leading Spins

The turning partner must be upright before they turn, or spin, e.g. the dipped or dropped partner must be brought back to a vertical position, before leading them into a turn, or spin.

Keep the handhold at waist height; if the leading hand is raised or begins to raise, then the follower may anticipate and dance a turn, rather than spinning.

Need momentum / angle to lead a spin, very difficult to lead from a static “line-abreast” especially at arm's length. Use the body's momentum to lead the spin — difficult to lead this at a distance. Needs preparation.

When the spin is led, the leader should be leading the follower to spin about their centre of mass, rather than some external point. It is important to adjust for the follower's velocity if they are travelling, so that the point that the follower spins about also travels at a similar velocity.

All spins need to be led horizontally, to avoid tilting the follower. Leading a spin upwards means that the follower's axis of rotation will be tilted putting them off balance; there will be less energy imparted in the desired horizontal direction.

Need a “clean” release, preferably with a smooth gradual build-up. “Frisbee”, or ball-and-socket handholds and leads, especially clockwise spins led left-to-right hands, or anticlockwise spins led right-to-right, etc.

A short, sharp lead does not provide enough time for a follower to plant a foot and locate an axis about which to turn, and will probably cause them to shift their weight unexpectedly. The leader should start the spin as early as possible, to give the follower time to position themselves well, and to locate a suitable axis about which to spin. When leading a (free) spin the leader should use a smooth lead, to avoid unbalancing the follower. One way to make this lead smoother is to keep the handhold relatively rigid (tense), and for the leader to use their body weight (or the momentum from preceding preparation moves) to spin the follower. For the tension in the leader's handhold to be converted into a spin, the follower should also keep tension in their arm, otherwise the lead will simply move their arm limply. Flat spins, lead as a Frisbee.

Push Spins

When leading push spins (or other push moves) keep the fingers together to provide a solid base for the follower to push against — if the leader spreads their fingers during a push away, then the leader's and follower's fingers may become tangled during the push.

When leading a push against the follower's free arm for them to rotate, e.g. for the follower to (free) spin — a Left-Handed Hatchback or comb-duck-spin — then the push should be slightly downwards, if the follower's arm is flicked up it may hit nearby dancers (in the face). When leading spins (push-spins) the lead should be smooth but unambiguous, so that the push breaks any grip between the hands.

The lead for an unwrapping move, e.g. Wurlitzer, should be a push away at the same height.

Spotting

Spotting [Spotting] is a technique whereby the dancer rotates their head in a different manner to their body; the dancer keeps their head stationary (looking at a “spot”) as their body begins to rotate, and then quickly rotate their head independently of their body (to bring the “spot” back in to view), and then keep their head stationary (looking at the “spot”) as their finishes the rotation.

Leading And Catching Spins

Don't lead a (free) spin that you can't catch.

Note that it is the leader who does the catching — the follower leaves their hand relatively static — it is difficult to catch a moving target, both will be more likely to miss.

Must always catch any spins from the follower — even if you miss the hand catch, grab the other hand, or the follower's hips, or shoulders — this is important in case the follower is spinning in the wrong direction, or is off-balance. Being prepared to catch wayward spins is even more important when dancing with beginners, or when dancing in confined conditions, especially in classes where everyone will be moving together.

When catching and leading the follower forwards, e.g. to enter a dance hold (again) the leader must catch and pull the follower's shoulder — not behind their lower back — otherwise the leader may force the follower's back to arch backwards when pulling them forwards, if this is forced repeatedly the follower may develop back problems.

Other Spins

There are other varieties of spins:

Pirouettes

To reduce friction

Hip And Shoulder Spins

There are several reasons why hip/shoulder spins can be problematic:

Turns

The main lead for all turns is to raise the hand above head height — if the hand isn't above head height then don't turn!

There are different types of turns, depending whether the hand turned under also provides the lead for the direction for the follower to rotate. For example, when leading the follower to turn out from a First Move the direction to rotate is mainly lead by the leader pushing on the follower's waist (or back). Alternatively, the Return relies on the direction of the lead coming from the same (single) handhold, especially if the counter-motion from the previous move hasn't obviously wound the follower up for the turn.

If there is no other lead to indicate the direction to turn, then the turning hand must also lead the direction for the follower to turn, e.g. initially by pushing or pulling slightly in the appropriate direction off to one side. Once the follower starts to rotate, the leader should take the hands directly over the follower's head so that they are not pushed off-balance.

Leading multiple turns (in a single step) on a single handhold requires a clear lead as early as possible, so that the follower has the maximum time to dance their turn. For example, the leader can describe a small “halo” directly above the follower's head to clearly lead the follower's turn(s). The speed and number of times that the leader “draws” the halo indicates the speed and the number of turns that the leader wishes the follower to perform.

When leading multiple travelling turns, the leader's hand will still describe a small “halo” directly above the follower's head — from the follower's viewpoint. However, from a fixed viewpoint the leader's hand will describe a series of loops.

When a leader dances a turn, they should take the hands definitely over their own head — otherwise, the action of lifting the hands may be interpreted by the follower as a lead for the follower to turn.

Leading Turns

Turns should be led with fingertip or palm contact, to maintain the handhold, so that the grip rotates freely. Don't ever lock thumbs during a turn, it can be extremely awkward, and possibly rather painful.

When leading turns the handhold should be roughly a hand's breadth above the turning partners head, to avoid pulling them off-balance — rather than keeping the handhold as high as possible.

When one partner is turning, the stationary partner should keep the “pivot” handhold over the turning partner's axis of rotation (basically over the turning partner's head, or slightly in front of their face) — not out to the side. If the “pivot” handhold is out to the side, then the turning partner may be pushed off-balance, affecting the stability of the spinning partner at worst, or at least spoiling the “look” of the move.

Similarly, the stationary partner must not “stir” the handhold to “help” their partner to rotate. Stirring the handhold gives an ever-changing pivot point for the spinning partner — which will probably slow the spin.

Stirring makes it more difficult for the spinning partner to remain “in-place”, as the changing position of the pivot will tend to move them around.

At higher speeds, keeping the pivot handhold still and in the correct place becomes increasingly important for safe and rapid turns.

Leading Double-Handed Turns

When leading double-handed turns, keep both sets of hands close together — firstly, it reduces the risk of hands and arms getting tangled during the turn; secondly, it means that there will be a well-defined pivot point to turn under; thirdly, bringing the hands close together is a hint that the next step may be a turn.

Leading Multiple Double-Handed Turns

If the hands are uncrossed, then a single turn will naturally cause the hands to cross each other. If the hands are uncrossed, then a double turn will naturally cause the hands and arms to “doubly cross each other” — forming a Cajun little window, as in the Cajun Window. If the hands are uncrossed, triple and other turns will naturally cause the hands and arms to become too twisted, so that they are effectively impossible to dance,

One simple technique is for the stationary partner to allow the turning partner's hands to rotate freely inside their (stationary) hands, until the turn is completed — however this technique can somewhat disconnect the partners until the turn finishes. A more advanced technique is for the leader to “slip the follower's hand” as follows:

This technique allows the leader to lead multiple turns while maintaining a strong lead and follow connection, and to allow the turn to be finished without tangled hands — plus, there's a certain degree of fun in using the quickness of the hand(s) to deceive the eye (as with practise the hand change shouldn't be noticeable).

Alternatively the leader can simply release one of the follower's hands and then collect it at the end of the turn. However, this technique will look more polished if the follower still keeps the released hand high near to the remaining hand hold, rather than dropping it to waist level — it also makes it easier for the leader to gather than free hand back into a hold at the end of the turn.

Leading Fast Turns

It is faster to lead an inside turn when the leader's hand is under the follower's hand, but at speed it can sometimes be rather awkward to change grip, and often it is simpler to lead a spin and collect a new “clean” grip rather than leading a turn, with a very fast change of grip.

Tall Leaders

Tall leaders should turn under their own hands, arms, or elbows so that they can turn under the joint handhold — rather than trying to lift their hands and possibly trying to lift their follower. Similarly, tall leaders should also lower joint hands off their shoulders, if leaving them there would strain their follower, e.g. in a Butterfly or Teapot. Similarly, when dancing a Comb, then let go “early” — don't try and hold on — many moves can be released quickly and you'll still keep the move flowing, but without having to stop in an awkward position. And yes, It may be easier to slightly “race ahead” in a class to avoid having to stop in a position that needs your partner to use a stepladder.

One other technique is to dance “crazy legs” — this is a lindy move with bent legs, that can be used to dance slightly lower.

Finally, think about hamming up the situation — lead moves from a kneeling position — or make a real point of limboing in a step under, etc.

Following Turns

Followers should not step backwards out of a turn unless led to explicitly by their leader⁶⁵. Leaders may wish to smoothly join a turn in to the next move, which may be disrupted if a follower immediately steps backwards. Additionally, the leader may wish to dance a turn under the joint hands themselves (possibly more than once) — this option becomes more difficult to dance if the follower steps backwards, since stepping backwards will effectively lower the hands.

If you have to duck under the arms for a turn, then either:

There should be enough tone in the arms during a turn so that the leader can halt the turn part way, which is useful for leading stops (breaks) during turns. Being able to halt turns, also aids a couple's floor craft, as it allows the leader to be able to prevent collisions, when the follower turns.

Followers can emphasize turns, especially in swing dancing by slightly overturning and then coming back to face — “work that skirt”.

In a turn, keep the arm in front of the face, so that the elbow stays in close, rather than drifting out to the side — which may be more likely to collide with the leader. Similarly, be careful not to hit your partner (in the face) when doing a turn close to them, e.g. in dance hold, or when travelling past your partner.

When turning — the hand / palm faces the ceiling, with the static partner's hand “atop”, i.e. palm down with no “real” grip, so that the hands can swivel freely — basically, the turning partner's arm and hand is almost as if it were carrying a tray (overhead) — the static partner's hand would be the tray.

Leading Travelling Turns

The non-turning partner needs to keep the pivot point above the turning partner as the turning partner travels.

Travelling turns are simpler to lead by the leader stepping off the follower's line and leading the follower to travel forwards in a slot and then turn to face the leader, rather than the leader staying in-place and leading the follower in a combined circular travelling motion turning around themselves. The slotted technique is faster, since the follower has a smaller distance to travel, since they travel along the diameter of the circle, rather than around its circumference.

Spinning Notes

It may help your spinning to try to straighten your posture, e.g. by raising the diaphragm, and holding yourself erect. Don't raise the “spare” foot too high; it can always be used as a stabiliser if you wobble, if it is close to the floor. The leader can only drive the spin if the follower keeps their spinning hand and arm rigid, there will be less torque transferred if the follower's arm is limp.

Dizziness, from turning too much. Try leading an opposite handed spin. A turn or spin in the opposite direction to previous motions will cancel the fluid motion in the inner ear's semi-circular canals and therefore reduce feelings of dizziness.

Spotting. Leads need to watch their partner. Leaders have more time to prepare to spin. Follow-on spins, e.g. Spot Turn. Opposite spins, e.g. American Spin.

“Acrobatic Moves”: (Dips, Drops, Lifts And Jumps)

No means no!

Beginners won't necessarily understand about acrobatic moves and that they need to say no to avoid them, so the more experienced dancer should always ask. If your partner indicates that they aren't happy to dance acrobatic moves, i.e. dips, drops, lifts, or jumps, then there is absolutely no excuse for leaders to lead such moves (or indeed for followers to throw themselves into such moves).

All “acrobatic moves” are dangerous if performed incorrectly.

There is no stigma in avoiding acrobatic moves, so don't be afraid of avoiding them — simply agree with your partner beforehand what you will both do. In classes, you can often substitute other moves instead of drops — teachers may suggest replacements⁶⁷ — learning a new move that you won't use, is not worth damaging your back.

Safety first!

Thinking about safety before dancing acrobatic moves is the first obvious requirement. The suggestions below are not intended to be exhaustive, or authoritative — and should not replace the judicious use of your own common sense.

General Tips For Acrobatic Moves

Learning Acrobatic Moves

Obviously, just because you are in a class or otherwise learning acrobatic moves, doesn't mean that you can ignore the general safety considerations. In fact, in a class situation it can be difficult to make sure that you have enough room, and if the move is taught at the beginning of a class then you may not necessarily have warmed up enough — so use your common sense as to whether it is safe to dance the move in the class.

Practising Acrobatic Moves

The crowded social dance floor is never an acceptable place to practise acrobatic moves.

Complex acrobatic air steps (aerials) should only be performed after instruction from professional trainers. Make sure that your practise environment is quiet, well lit, and that you are away from any other dancers — you may also need to enlist the help of “spotters” to help you land safely. Opinions differ on the use of crash mats — obviously they can cushion falls, but be careful that they don't make you complacent as to the potential risks.

It is possible to practise moves à la “Dirty Dancing” in water — which may make them less intimidating — although there will be less grip and the water may change the general feel of some lifts, etc. Alternatively, it may be possible to practise at venues that have specialist aerial harnesses.

Spotters

Spotters need to be attentive — an inattentive spotter is worse than useless. Spotters will not generally be able to catch a falling dancer, but they can help to protect the vulnerable parts of a falling dancer from impact when a move fails. Obviously, spotters should try and keep the falling dancer's head (and neck) from hitting the ground — although in some circumstances it may be safer to support their back or shoulders, rather than trying to catch their head and neck directly.

Leans

Most leans, i.e. those where both partners lean together in the same direction and those where both partners lean apart in opposite directions balancing their respective weights, are safer if the leader's foot is pressed against the follower's foot — if there is a gap, then the leader should slide their foot to close that gap. Keeping the feet braced together prevents partners slipping during the lean — which can be the case if there is a gap (and there is nothing to lean against). Keeping the feet close together also ensures that the follower is in line with (and not in front or behind) their leader. Similarly, leaders shouldn't twist the “blocking” foot when the follower places their foot against it, as this may “twist” the follower — possibly pulling them off balance.

Lean Together

Generally in leans, both partners are side by side with the follower braced against the leader, so that when the leader steps out to the side their follower will move to the side with them, so that the follower is supported by and leans against the leader's side.

Lean Escapes

If a follower wants to avoid a lean, or simply feels unstable, then it is perfectly acceptable to “escape” the lean.

Lean Apart

In a lean apart, both partners lean sideways away from a notional joint vertical axis — balancing their weight against each other, while keeping a foot braced against their partners foot. Ideally, both partners will lean symmetrically — however, when partners are very different sizes the larger partner will necessarily lean less than their smaller partner.

A lean apart used to be taught as part of the original catapult move; in this case when the follower was behind the leader, the leader would lean forwards and the follower would also lean backwards.

Dips And Drops

Dips and drops can look impressive if danced slowly (and safely), rather than “leaving you, or your partner in an undignified, injured heap on the dance floor”. A slow dip, or drop, gives more chance for people to appreciate the move. Hence, dips and drops are better suited to slower music, rather than trying to rush them to fit faster tracks.

There is no definitive classification of what is a dip and what is a drop, but for the purposes of discussion it is assumed that in a dip the following apply:

Otherwise, the move will be considered to be a drop.

Dips

Drops

Styling Dips And Drops

Don't add styling, until you can dance dips and drops safely.

Dips and drops are generally consistent with a smooth styling, and the dipped partner can make a graceful line by keeping their toes pointed and in contact with the floor — rather than flexing the foot in a dip, i.e. with the heel in contact with the floor and the toe in the air, which will “break” an otherwise graceful leg line.

Arm Styling In Dips And Drops

In dips (seducers) the leader can use their spare arm to caress the follower's body — although obviously leaders should keep a suitable distance between their hand and the followers body when gesturing.

Followers can style their arms in leans and dips with a stylish arm line, or drawing it down their body, etc. However, any arm movements should be in the same vertical plane as their body — taking an arm forwards or backwards can unbalance the move. To get an overall sense of dancing together both partners can mirror each other's arm lines.

Lifts, Jumps And Aerials

Other “Acrobatic” Moves

Monkey Swing

In the monkey swing the follower travels between the leader's akimbo legs. The follower swings on one of the leader's hands from behind the leader to under the leader's legs, and then switches the handhold as they swing from under the leader's legs to in front of the leader.

One key point is that the follower needs to lean backwards and most importantly keep their head tilted back as they swing between the leader's legs — if the follower tries to look up as they swing through, then this can cause obvious technical difficulties.

Layback

The “layback” is effectively a modification to a closed dance hold, where the follower arches their upper body backwards, i.e. away from the leader who adjusts their stance to counterbalance the follower's pose. Both partners tend to be in a close hold (in the mush), with bent knees to give them enough flexibility for the layback position — in a deep layback the follower may use the leaders right leg to clamp or hook onto with their legs. The leader can hold the follower's waist in their left and right hands. Alternatively, the leader can hold the follower's shoulder blades — in which case it is the leader who provides enough room for the follower to layback, by lowering their hands and hence giving the follower room to lean their shoulders backwards — it is not the leader who makes the follower arch backwards.

Learning Leading And Following

Learning To Lead Moves Behind The Back

The first stage is to understand how the move is broken down, e.g. which way the follower should rotate, etc. In particular, try and use muscle memory to “remember” the move even for motions out of sight, by feeling limb and joint positions, as you walk through the move slowly — making sure that both partners' arms move the correct way⁶⁸. Once both partners understand how a particular move (or piece of arm origami) works — then the leader can start to lead the move slowly — rather than walking through it. Once the leader can lead the move (and the follower can follow the move) then both partners can building up speed, style, etc. Obviously, be ready to release grip if there is any suggestion that there is a problem, and make sure that you the handholds can rotate easily — so that both partners can easily swivel into and out of hammerlocks, etc.

Practise

Practise the steps! It's obvious, but still — the more that you practise moves, the more time that you'll have to concentrate on your partner — and on the lead and follow. Eventually, your feet will take care of themselves.

Stating the obvious again: smaller, simpler moves will give more time for practise at leading and following. Simpler steps that work well, will look much better than complicated failures.

Practise Review

Practise makes permanent, not perfect.

Be positive — success comes in cans — not can'ts.

Take time out occasionally to check that you are practising “correctly” — rather than just reinforcing any bad habits. A video camera can be used to check moves after dancing, whereas private lessons can provide more immediate feedback to review progress and pick up any (potential) problems.

Making A Connection

Mirroring. In general, the follower will mirror the leader when facing, and copy them when side by side — which will help both partners look coordinated. It is often easier for the leader to switch footwork to meet the follower, rather than trying to lead the follower into a complicated series of steps to swap their feet.

Mime.

Humour. Pushing / kicking your partner — slapstick. Kicking during a walking yo-yo, etc.

Dancing With Multiple Partners

It's useful to move around and change partner(s) in a class and learn with someone who may have a better view, more experience, or has learnt it before. Dancing with multiple partners means that you will have to lead and follow more and this may help you from developing “bad” habits — you may not even realise that you have them until you eventually find that you can only dance with a single partner. Leaders can get lazy dancing exclusively with a single partner because they know their repertoire, and followers can get lazy dancing exclusively with a single partner because they “know” which move is coming next.

Improving Leading And Following

Watch other dancers (and different dance styles) — this is a great way to find new moves and pick up style tips to use in your own dancing.

Chose a teacher / class that suits you — variety of styles from more regimented to the flippant.

Simple mechanisms include

Develop a culture where leading and following is expected, be flexible in your leads; don't always lead move X after move Y — try mixing in Travelling Returns instead of normal returns — avoid leading the same move for the majority of the dance, e.g. only lead a few First Moves.

Try leading your partner lightly without a handhold, e.g. leading by lightly pushing, or pulling on shoulder, arm, hip, etc. to gauge the smallest amount of lead needed.

Start simple, add in extra walks forwards or backwards, e.g. after a Return. Keep the handhold extremely light, reduce or remove signals, or hand beating or circling hand motions.

Leader should use a “quiet” lead — follower should keep her hand in front of and perpendicular to their centre of gravity, etc.

Relax your partner — smile, light lead, look at them.

Dancing With Beginners

Dancing with beginners is a real opportunity for leaders to practise their leading and floor-craft, etc. — it is much clearer to a leader dancing with a beginner that his lead is incorrect, unclear, or lazy — since more experienced followers may have learnt to cope with any idiosyncrasies, etc. A less philanthropic reason is that dancing with beginners can help to improve your skills and technique for competitions, such as “dance with a stranger”.

Dancing With Absolute Beginners

Dancing with absolute beginners, i.e. with little or no Modern Jive experience, can be challenging. Obviously, absolute beginners will have little, or no, experience of floor craft — so the more experienced dancer must take much more responsibility for safety even if they are a follower.

When leading absolute beginners, it is easiest to constrain moves to those that can be danced in a closed dance hold, or in an uncrossed double-handed open hold — since this kind of move restricts the absolute beginner dancer “escaping”, while making it easier to sense their orientation, etc. Suitable moves include: the arm jive, baskets, walking moves, Manhattans, etc.

Moves to avoid include: wurlitzer type moves, as an absolute beginner will probably “break their shoulder” and combs, as absolute beginners tend to confuse them as the lead for a turn. Obviously, all acrobatic moves should be avoided, as a (absolute) beginner will have no training in how to follow them.

Music And Musical Interpretation

If you can't hear it, then you can't dance it.

Dancing to music has to begin with listening to music.

Many dance styles have their own particular music, and an appreciation and understanding of that music will greatly improve your mastery of that dance.

Music

Musical Structure

Duration

Note durations are displayed in music notation (using 4/4 time, i.e. four beats per bar) as follows:

Dotted notes are played half as long again as the “normal” version, and are displayed in music notation (using 3/4 time, i.e. three beats per bar) as follows:

Volume

Beat

The beat is the regular count (1, 2, 3, 4…) forming the framework that the music is built around. Musicians, especially jazz musicians, will deviate from and come back to this regular count, using the beat to synchronise with each other.

Note that not every beat has to be played, and a beat is always a “whole” count — a n, a or and count is not generally a beat. Unfortunately, Modern Jivers will confusingly often count every second musical beat, which will in fact mean that the and in a Modern Jive count will in fact be a whole musical beat.

The beat is generally played by a bass instrument (or drums), in swing music the double bass usually picks out the beat. Note that the beat is not normally given by the lyrics or melody (tune), often these are considerably “faster” than the underlying beat.

Finding The Beat

The best way to practise finding the beat for dancing is to stand up and step on each beat — either walking, just changing weight, or moving forwards and backwards. Alternatively, practise by clapping to music, or counting aloud — or listening to a teacher count the music aloud.

Bars

Bars can be viewed as slicing the beat pattern into pieces that are equal in duration (number of beats). The number of beats and length of a bar are determined by the time signature of the music.

Time Signature

The time signature of a piece of music is almost always constant. However, there are rare exceptions of pieces of music that change time signature, for example “It's oh so quiet” (Bjork, Marilyn Monroe) alternates between 3/4 waltz-time in the slower quiet passages, and 4/4 in the faster louder passages.

The time signature is written in the form of a fraction; the top figure is the number of beats in a bar, and the bottom figure is the length (or type) of each beat in terms of a musical note. Table 2 shows some common time signatures:

Modern Jive music usually has a 4/4 time signature, and therefore four beats in each bar.

Note that the time signature doesn't indicate how “fast” a bar should be played, as it doesn't indicate how much time each beat takes.

Not All Beats Are Equal

In general, Modern Jive (chart) music will have a slightly more definite beat for the first beat in each bar⁶⁹; this can be used to help counting which beat is which in a bar, i.e. this can help dancers identify where each bar of music will start. Beats one and three in the bar are sometimes referred to as down beats, and beats two and four are referred to as up beats. Dancers can emphasize particular beats by sinking slightly in to the step, and breathing out.

Finding The First Beat

Practise by clapping with a definite louder clap on the first beat of each bar (unless you are driving), or by counting aloud to music “1… 2… 3… 4”.

Counting In

Phrases

Just as a singer cannot keep singing non-stop, brass or woodwind players cannot keep playing forever without taking a breath — these slight “gaps” break the music into phrases. Phrases can be thought of as the musical equivalent of sentences — they are relatively short fragments of music, but have a structure that makes sense and a notion of completeness, i.e. have an ending.

Unless a track finishes by fading into the distance (or is terminated with prejudice by a DJ) the end of the track is likely to coincide with the end of a musical phrase, i.e. the end of the track and the end of the phrase will coincide. Similarly, other musical structures such as key changes, breaks, etc. are likely to coincide with the end of a phrase.

Eight Beat Phrases

In swing music, and much music played for Modern Jive the musical phrases are eight beats in length, i.e. two bars of four beats. Many swing dance steps, particularly in Lindy Hop are based on eight beats, so that a move that starts when a musical phrase begins will finish when that musical phrase ends.

Salsa moves are also danced over eight beats, so that a move that starts when a musical phrase begins will finish when that musical phrase ends. In particular, in “on-1” Salsa, the first four beats will correspond to a whole bar, and the second four beats will also correspond to a whole bar of music. Salsa music tends to give a slight emphasis to the first bar in a phrase — unfortunately, this emphasis can be quite subtle to hear (at first). Hence, salsa leaders need to be sensitive to the music; in on-1 salsa the step one of a move will correspond with the beat one of a two bar musical phrase. Leaders can detect an error in their on-1 salsa timing (eventually); if you find that you are not dancing the ending four beats of a move at the end of a track (or at an obvious key change, solo, break, etc.) you are probably dancing across the musical phrases, i.e. dancing step one on beat five of the phrase.

Thirty-two Beat Phrases

Swing music will also feature longer phrases in the music, e.g. thirty-two beat phrases, etc., which can be thought of as combining several smaller eight beat musical phrases. One technique for “hitting” a thirty-two beat phrase is to dance four lots of six beat dance moves, followed by one lot of an eight beat dance move.

Twelve Bar Blues

Much blues music and derived forms, like Rock'n'Roll, are based around a twelve bar blues format.

Swing Chorus

The swing chorus format has two distinct parts (A and B), which are repeated as: AABA.

Rhythm

Cadence

Musical Properties

Start Of The Track

Track Introduction

Tempo

Bass Line

Melody

Instruments

Genre Specific Instruments

Music for specific dance styles will sometimes feature instruments that are not widely used in popular modern music.

Lyrics

The Verse

Lyrics (in the verse) are more difficult to predict than the melody — there's literally a wider vocabulary to choose from.

The Bridge

The Chorus

The chorus is generally repeated after each verse (and bridge). If there are lyrics in the chorus, these are usually repeated and at least the second and subsequent choruses should be fairly predictable, once you have listened to the first.

Silence

In many pop tracks, there will be a small silent section; this silence is a hint that something important will happen shortly afterwards in the track, e.g. a key change.

End Of The Track

In general, Modern Jive music will start with the first beat of the first bar and end with the last beat of the last bar. Hence, in order to finish dancing at the same time that the music finishes it is a good idea to be able to predict which is the last beat of a bar. Unfortunately, this is complicated by musical endings that are abrupt, or just fade away gradually. Additionally, some Modern Jive DJs may not necessarily play a track right to its end; this can be annoying, but there is little that a dancer can do to affect that from the dance floor.

False Endings

A very few tracks have false endings — giving the impression that they have finished, before (briefly) restarting. These tracks are particularly problematic, as there's little that can be done to predict that there will be a reprise — the best idea is simply to listen to as much music as possible.

Musical Genres

Accenting Beats

Swinging The Beat

The cha-cha style rhythm comes from splitting “a beat” into two equal pieces. However, there's not much else that you can do with two equal pieces, if you add them up you just get back to the original beat.

The next obvious idea is to split “a beat” into three equal pieces. This split has two possibilities to make different rhythms: by joining pieces one and two can, or by joining pieces two and three. So the new rhythms are two-thirds of a beat and one third of a beat; or one third of a beat and two-thirds of a beat.

The dance triple step can be thought of extending the first option: two-thirds of a beat followed by a third of a beat, followed by a whole beat.

Musicians can modify this strict triple rhythm by subtly shifting the way they play for two-thirds/one-third split — either lengthening or shortening the first section to change the feel of the rhythm and making it “swing”.

Predicting Music

Counting Music

Hopefully, in freestyle you won't have to count more than a few beats, since it's probably more important just to locate the first beat of a bar or phrase. — although if you are predicting a repetitive break, you may be counting quite a lot. So, if you have to count more than a few bars or phrases, e.g. for a particular routine or performance, then you may find it easier to count (and perhaps less likely to lose count) by using the bar or phrase number instead of 1, i.e. rather than counting eighty beats as: 1, 2, 3… 78, 79, 80; for example, count them as ten lots of eight beat phrases: 1, 2… 8,2, 2… 8,3, 2… 8… 10, 2,… 8.

Predicting The Start

Predicting Basic Musical Structures

Mini Breaks

Since the first beat of each bar has a slightly more definite beat, there is scope to accent that musical beat by dancing a move that hits that beat clearly — as a sort of mini break. Counting bars: the mini break will be on beat one (of four); counting phrases: the mini breaks will be on beats one and five (of eight)⁷⁰.

Predicting Advanced Musical Structures

Predicting the first few breaks can be difficult, especially for new tracks.

The first break in a track can sometimes come as a surprise. Hopefully, the second break is easier to hear — once you manage to hear a break, you can count until the next break, and then use that gap to try to predict all of the subsequent breaks. For example, if the gap between a pair of musical breaks is 16 bars and the music is regular, then subsequent breaks should also occur at 16 bar intervals.

Don't Predict, Cheat!

Part of the reason why some dancers seem able to predict breaks and interpret music thoroughly is not necessarily due to psychic gifts — rather they may simply have heard the track (several times) before. So, one obvious way to improve your dancing and musicality is to listen to as much danceable music as possible.

Predicting The End

What Makes Music Challenging?

Some music can be more challenging to dance to; especially if there are many instruments layered together — leaders may need to choose which particular instrument they (and their follower) are dancing to.

This situation gets more complicated when music is polyrhythmic — when instruments in a particular tune play in the same time signature but use different rhythms.

Dancing To Music

Modern Jive is commonly danced so that each “step” takes two musical beats: starting the step on the odd musical beat, and finishing the step on the even musical beat. Each step is normally counted or “called” where each count is two musical beats — normally moves are “called”, e.g. First Move “step-back, come-in, twist-out, back-to-face, turn, and step-back”. Other dance styles sometimes count the musical beats (and half beats): a Modern JiveChopped Backhander can be counted: (1) step-back, (2) come in side by side, (3) rotate, (4) step-back; a Lindy Hop Chopped Backhander can be counted: (1) back, (2) rock, (3+4) chassé, (5) step, (6) step, (7+8) chassé. Leads are generally given at least one musical beat (or half a Modern Jive count) before the next step.

Musical Interpretation

Musicality is the art of using your interpretation of the music to aid your selection of your dance moves (and style, etc.) so that your movements are the best fit to that music.

Once you can predict the music and its structures, you can plan and use your prediction to interpret it — this is the foundation musical interpretation and musicality.

Basic Musicality

Dance in time with the music, i.e. interpret the beat or base line. Interpret the melody. Interpret the lyrics.

When possible: start moves on the first beat of the bar, and finish moves on the last beat of the bar.

Because the music is 4/4 time, 8-beat moves will often fit the music better — although most modern jive moves don't easily fit into 4 or 8 beats. However, the leader may arrange moves to hit a particular beat, e.g. to catch a musical break, etc.

Listen to the music. Find the main tempo you are going to dance at. Listen to the lyrics. Listen to the main instruments. Listen to when the beat changes, and when instruments start and stop within the piece.

Advanced Musicality

Spot the breaks.

Feel the music, is it smooth or bouncy, what emotions does it conjure up — your dancing should reflect the differences in the played tracks.

Listen To The Music

One of the great strengths of Modern Jive is that it can be danced to a wide variety of music, from swing and big band tunes, to current chart music. A single universal style and set of moves is unlikely to be suitable for this wide range of music, so the leader (and follower) should work together to provide different interpretations to take emphasize the (particular) music.

Fast Music

Dancing to fast music is a particular skill:

Fast music can make your dancing appear more dynamic, but won't necessarily show how balanced you can be, or how graceful — but luckily you can use the slower tracks for that.

Dance to the beat of the bass line, not to the faster melody — you'll still be in time with the music, and possibly look cooler.

Floor craft is obviously harder when the music is fast, so smaller steps will take less space and make it easier. Simplify.

Keep separation smaller, e.g. don't step back or back-rock — rather step out instead of back. “Cheat” turns.

It's much more difficult to catch-up than to slow down; so lead each step with a slightly fast beginning portion and slow the end portion if you are ahead of the music.

Don't think “faster” — this'll tend to panic you (worrying about speed) — think “sharper”, i.e. apply more thought, precision, and control — rather than increasing your speed. You need to allow extra time for braking — if you are travelling fast. Best to avoid large changes of direction — may be better slotted. Think about all of the time you have left, rather than the “lost time” — count out the beats slowly. Relax. Breathe — if you don't breathe then you'll tend to tense up and start panicking — turn blue and fall over. If you have control over the music — and a willing partner — forget your current obstacle, push the tempo high (think “Sing, sing, sing (with a swing)”) and try dancing to that for a few bars — then returning to your original slower tempo and appreciate all that space and time to play with.

Failing that vary your dance tempo — be cool (literally) compared to those turning red and steaming — use two beats instead of one beat — dance a triple-step over two beats, rather than a single step — use kick-step, rather than step. Do a messin' around — a Checked First Move.

Slow Music

Dancing to slower music, e.g. “blues”, has obvious options, such as moving slower or taking larger (more) steps. Musical interpretation is also easier with slow music, since there is more time to plan and react. Similarly, there is much more time and space for the follower to improvise, but jumps might not necessarily fit, whereas a slow, sensuous lean, dip or drop may be more appropriate. It's more important in slower dances to maintain a good line, posture and style, since the steps are slower, and more obvious.

Dance To The Tempo

Dance to the tempo — some songs change speed part way through, slowing down or speeding up, e.g. “Minnie the Moocher” and “Bei mir bist du schön”.

Listen for breaks, hesitations and interruptions.

Latin Music

Try adding extra styling appropriate to the music, e.g. adding some Latin hip movements.

Breaks And Hesitations

Musical Breaks

Most music for Modern Jive has a regular structure — musical breaks and hesitations will generally occur at relatively fixed points — a whole number of bars apart, i.e. a multiple of four beats.

Breaks, are (brief) pauses in the musical track and are fairly obvious to hear. Other elements in the musical structure, such as change of key, can be treated by dancers in similar ways.

Dancing To Musical Breaks and Hesitations

The key point with breaks and hesitations is to hear them. Once leaders can hear and predict breaks (and hesitations), then they can start to lead a dance move to fit them and give the follower time to react.

The simplest way to interpret a break is simply to keep dancing.

If you are trying to lead a move to “hit” the start of a break cleanly, then you may need to predict and lead that move say half a beat or so before the actual musical break.

In social dancing, there should always be a pause before an acrobatic move — if you arrive early for a dip or a drop, then any extra time can be incorporated into the pause for dramatic effect.

There's no reason that you can't add your own stops and breaks, even if there are no definite musical cues to do so.

Moves can be “stretched” and “compressed” to hit particular beats. The most basic stretched move is dance a first move but exit with a double return so that the move takes eight Modern Jive counts (rather than seven) and hence should fill four whole bars of 4/4 music. Other techniques are to repeat a movement, to hit a particular place in the music, e.g. stepping and creating the emphasis by taking a larger step (lunge), or repeating a dip and then creating the emphasis by dipping slightly lower or even create the emphasis with a dramatic exit from the dip.

Stops

Note, many classes teach stops, i.e. both partners “freezing”, as a means of hitting a break. Some leaders will signal their partner to stay still by definitely bringing the handhold to waist height and keeping some pressure (with a thumb) on the back of the follower's hand — this works well if the hands are “naturally” returning to waist height, e.g. a Travelling Return.

Alternatives To Stops

One alternative to both partner's stopping is for only one partner to stop, while the other spins during the break, i.e. as the break starts partner spins, as the break finishes they catch, or are caught by, their partner — this is a good time for leaders to practise their (free) spins.

Improvise some footwork, keeping relatively stationary e.g. tap one foot, or click fingers, and end the break with a stomp-off. Blocks will fit single beat breaks well, e.g. First Move Barrier, or First Move — Checked (possibly with tango-style leg blocks). Alternatively simply do a dip, or drop and hold for the duration of the break, i.e. “play statues”. If it's more of a showcase and a dramatic fast-break, a slap or an equally dramatic action may fit the music.

Accents

Heads and looking at each other can be used to hit a musical accent, if you finish a beat too early. Another easy way to get an extra accent is simply for both partners to take an extra step (or lunge).

If moves are kept small and smooth, then larger (abrupt) movements will be more apparent and dramatic, e.g. head movements, or hand movements.

The head (and how it moves) is important (it's large and heavy to move) but it is more likely to be watched than your feet.

Break after a (travelling) Return — finger lightly on top of follower's hand, lead downwards (keeping pressure) — leader's arm extended and locked

Or lead a similar break after a Texas Tommy.

Break in dance-hold.

Extra hand point forwards each for leader and follower — hit breaks after initial stop.

Alternatively, clap or stamp on the break.

Can click, or tap in-place, and then stop for the break.

Doing extra quick Return (follower doesn't step backwards — leader does all of the stepping back).

Stopping on the returns.

Add extra returns (or top-turns)

(Step forwards / lunge if side-by-side)

Lean drop = single break.

Basket in = single break.

Basket in, basket out = double break.

(Reverse) Figure of eight + slide = triple break (one and two).

Symon's move = triple break (one two three).

Treat the break as a surprise! Add some syncopation. The leader can “tease” restarting the dance. Jazz steps may be useful in breaks / hesitations, e.g. trucking and pecking. Do a body ripple, or shimmy. Very slow unwind, or rondé for the duration of the break. A “caress-move” like a slow basket-comb, etc.

Light And Shade

Ideally, your dancing will not only match the music, but will keep your own interest — and any audience's interest. Constant fast dancing can look frenetic and be exhausting, whilst dancing in slow motion continuously can look boring. Hence, one technique is to alternate fast and slow elements — to bring light and shade to your performance.

Similarly, a sequence of complicated moves can just appear to be confusing, whilst a sequence of simple moves will look somewhat basic — ideally simple moves will be used as a counterpoint and to accentuate the more complicated ones. In some sense, a simpler move or break gives a gap for the audience to appreciate any preceding trick, and possibly applaud.

Contrast can also be made by using dramatic repetition to build an audience's expectation and then satisfy, or break that expectation.

An Academic Approach To Musicality

Musicality has even been the subject of academic research [MIT Student Dances With Robots] and several academic papers, e.g. [Musicality Experiments In Lead And Follow Dance] and [Modeling Musically Meaningful Choreography].

Styling

It ain't what you do, it's the way that you do it!

Styling is about making deliberate choices about the way that you dance, and enhancing the basic elements with contrasting movements and shapes. Note that, if you want to add style by deliberately moving one part of your body, then any additional inadvertent movement will reduce that contrast and the impact of the styling will be lost, since an onlooker may be distracted resolving several (conflicting) movements and may be unable to determine which of the movements was intentional. Hence, styling requires technical ability, plus confidence in dancing and experimenting with basic movements, together with the ability to find “styling opportunities”. Leaders and followers can apply their own individual styling, although obviously their styling shouldn't interfere with each other's dancing, and ideally each partner's styling should complement the other's styling and fit the music.

Graceful styling: pointing toes and extending arms. Some styling issues can be personal to an individual dancer.

However, leading in particular can help styling in as much as clear, early leads will give more time to layer style on to the basic movement.

Style is the presentation of the moves, rather than the content of the moves. Style is the way that you can stamp your personality on the dance — the same move can look completely different depending on the feeling and style used when dancing it. Body size and shape can influence your style of dancing, e.g. can play up your height, or lack of it. Style is the sum of all the non-technical aspects of dancing, and is used to sum up the emotional responses imparted by the leader and follower to each other, their surroundings, and especially the type or style of the music. For example, the style for dancing to a slow blues number may be completely dissimilar to that used to dance for a high-energy Rock'n'Roll tune. The precision in the steps may be completely different, the precise part of the beat that each step concludes may also vary from being behind the beat to moving precisely onto each beat.

How you dance the moves: graceful, angular, fast, or relaxed (laid-back). How you perform the moves you dance: comically (humorous) etc., or smoldering and intense. For example, the intensity of “close” moves can be completely deflated with well-timed grin, wink or other slight clowning (blowing a raspberry, asking for a “Clown kiss”). Mime aspects.

Complementary Styling

One important styling technique is to watch your partner (and their movements and styling) and adjust your dancing accordingly. Ideally, there will be a sense of a “partnership” formed by symmetric or smoothly continuous movements, arm-lines, leg-lines, eye-lines, etc. between both partners. Similarly, a notion of “togetherness” may be formed by starting and finishing movements simultaneously — and from both partners making similar (sized) movements, leans, etc.

General Issues

Smooth Styling

Take long steps. Think graceful, elegant — stand tall and straight — with slower music there's more time to see the lines formed by your arms, legs and body. When thinking about lines, think about the lines and space that your body occupies; and also think about the gaps and holes that your body makes — and the lines you make with your partner.

Blues Styling

Abrupt Styling

Swing Styling

Hip Hop Styling

Music often has a QQSQQS form, at least in parts. The musical accents may also be on musical beats 2 and 4, rather than “normal” beats 1 and 3 — even if beats are equal (QQQQ).

Dynamics And Timing

Try playing with the dynamics of the dance and the timing of individual steps — try stretching the timing of the travelling parts of moves to make them look more elegant, and then compressing the timing for spins, or turns, to make them look snappier — and to get a better contrast between the different motions. For example, stretch the walking part of a Travelling Return to fractionally longer than the strict time for a single step, and then “snap” the turning part round in the shorter fractionally less-time remaining in the second step.

Note gravity can't be “slowed” — it's a constant — so the “air-time” of a hop or (unsupported) jump can't be varied (unless you jump higher⁷¹). The only elements of a hop, or jump that can vary the dynamics and timing are the take-off and landing phases⁷²

Improving Styling

Overtrain.

Ask your partners for feedback — especially if they have any tips they can offer you.

Go to an all-day, or weekend event?

Practise

More than one teacher.

Remove extra linking moves, e.g. Returns.

Progressing

New venues will offer new challenges; at the very least there may be different partners to dance with, and different music to dance to. Hopefully, different teachers may offer new insights and different moves.

Dance to slow music — any faults in timing will be magnified. Additionally, your balance, and your balance with your partner becomes more important — as positions will be held for longer periods.

Private lessons may help.

Smooth, Slinky And Sexy

If you want to look smooth / elegant — need to keep body lines smooth / elegant — keep toes pointed down or on the floor. Don't keep your heel on ground unless the foot is flat, etc.

Don't have to lift the knee much — or lift the foot high off the ground to step forwards. Feet can glide rather than stomp across the floor. Need to keep legs relaxed with some very slight flex, otherwise you will be more likely to bounce as you move.

Need to be well-balanced for slower music — wobbling on one foot, e.g. when spinning, won't make you look smooth.

Possibly more romantic? Emphasize the music (swooping passages, etc.).

Cross Training

As in all disciplines, “cross-training” can be useful.

Different Dance Techniques

Try a ballroom (jive) class, maybe some swing / Lindy Hop, 1950's Rock'n'Roll, or West Coast Swing — or pick out a completely different style, e.g. salsa or tap. New techniques and styles will help broaden your lead / follow, syncopation, musical interpretation, etc. providing that you don't get confused.

Even ideas from country dancing, e.g. “swinging” your partner, e.g. in a side-by-side (Sway) position, or Basket where the leader can drive the rotation by using his body.

Non-Dancing Hobbies

Non-dancing hobbies can help cross-training:

Lines

Visualise your overall posture, and arm and leg lines. For example, try not to let your arms drop limply at your sides — keep unheld arms available at waist height.

Keep Moving

Staying in the same place doesn't mean that you have to stand motionless — try walking in time, at least there will be some hip movement.

Looking At Your Partner

Especially if both partners' are in-line. It's often good style to emphasize the in-line position (or others) using eye-contact.

It'll relax your partner, and make it easier to lead / follow as have extra eye-contact / facial expressions, to act as a guide.

Styling Arms

Keep your free (unheld) hands “up”, so that your hands are always at, or above waist level. However, keep your arms slightly below shoulder level and keep your elbows slightly in front of your body. Some teachers suggest that this slight drop of the arms can be thought of as keeping enough pressure to press a ball against your upper chest — dropping the arm to the side, or lifting it to (or above) shoulder level, would cause the ball to be dropped.

When styling arms (close to your partner, or indeed other dancers) then ensure that you do not lift your arm by lifting your elbow — since this causes your elbow to travel in an arc with a radius that is the length of your upper arm, which means that you will take a large amount of space to perform the movement. In particular, if your arm is (hanging) at your side then lifting your elbow will effectively make you “wider” which may be problematic if you are close to your partner — especially if you are spinning close to them.

It is possible to raise your hand without taking the elbow away from your body as follows:

Styling Both Arms

When both your arms are raised, then try to style them — make a definite “shape”, e.g. keeping arms symmetric and crossing them at your wrists, or keeping the palms or backs of your hands together. Try not to look surprised if a leader “throws” your hands up, and avoid leaving them as if your are dangling precariously from a ledge or are trying to surrender.

Styling Hands

When styling hands make them a definite shape, ideas include: “holding an egg”, making a loose “V”, forming a “C” shape.

To make the hand look daintier (smaller) keep the fingers together and depress the second (middle) finger, so that the overlap fingers to form a three-dimensional “V”.

Keep your fingers together when holding your partner — otherwise it can appear that you are trying to grope your partner.

Lady's Styling

Style your free arm — options include:

Consider how your hands and whether they face towards or away from you, etc., and how your fingers are arranged.

Footwork

Slides

One basic sliding technique is to keep your weight slightly forwards on your balls of your feet, and keeping the heels off of the ground (as you'll probably found that they will brake you).

Single Heel Slides

An alternative sliding technique is to do single heel slides, keeping the heel of one foot touching the ground (with its toe pointing upwards), while the other foot remains “flat” on the floor as in a basic slide.

Rock Steps

Don't necessarily have to step-backwards, could say step-across.

Replace rock-step with a swivel-swivel variations to get a more traditional Swing-style --- especially ladies (work that skirt). Note that swivels generally take less effort and are safer on a crowded floor, as there is no step backwards. Replace steps to the side with slides (extend the step over multiple beats) -- may be a good idea for breaks / hesitations. Stomp off.

When doing a back rock, make it small (and hence quicker, and less chance of collisions) and don't step backwards with full weight on the “back” leave your weight over your toes, don't drop the heel fully — since you will need to move your weight forwards on the “rock” step, it's easier to only partially move your weight backwards, so that there's less momentum and distance to return it forwards. In particular, don't dance the back rock, so that the weight transfers fully and the front foot raises off the ground when stepping backwards — it'll mean that you have to jerk on the handhold to yank your weight forwards.

Use the handhold to accumulate the extra tension from the “back” step, and then use that tension to do the “rock” step. The steps will be much easier to perform if both the handhold and back rock are performed smoothly — without sudden discontinuities in momentum, or direction. Don't dance a rock step so that your weight completely transfers to the back foot — especially don't lift the front foot during the rock step.

Fast Footwork

Keep your weight over your feet, and more over the balls of your feet than the heels, it'll make it much easier to change direction quickly, etc.

Must keep your knees “soft” and relaxed (certainly not locked) when dancing fast complicated footwork, such as salsa shines.

Jump, Jump, Jump Around

Fast jumps, e.g. Hip-hop shim-sham, into a frog etc., are best if the jump is kept “flat” and close to the floor — otherwise, most of the time for the step will be taken up in the air, which can mean that the rest of the step will be rather hurried.

Changing Direction

With a conventional shoe, with a solid heel, it's easier to pivot sharply by stepping from a heel onto a toe (i.e. with a raised toe), pivoting on the heel and then dropping onto the toe.

Footwork Variations

Footwork Variations can be used to vary the speed of the dance — especially when the music is fast.

Decorations

“Dirty Mambo” footwork in a stop and go, or lunge.

Ball-change Variations

Kicks

When kicking, move your foot, rather than moving your leg (or raising your knee) — it's much easier to control and less likely to kick someone (as you'll be concentrating on where the foot is moving). Normally more of a flick than a kick, don't show your shoe leather. Be extremely careful kicking in high heels, especially at groin level!

Kicks can be painful, so be considerate and keep them small or avoid them entirely when the dance floor is crowded. Kicks are not recommended for slow music, as you can end up balancing on one leg for long periods in a sort of arabesque. Other options include Lindy Hop style kicks, or the side-footed variation from Balboa.

The leader kicks over (above) the follower when in closed dance hold, i.e. above, and slightly to the side of, the follower's kicking leg.

Be careful to avoid the “spotty dog effect” in Charlestons, and in any form of kicks, etc.

Wiggling

It's not all in the hips.

If you are “pulled up” then it is impossible to wiggle, you are more likely to end up rocking from one foot on to the other since there will be no “slack” in your knees. To be able to wiggle, you will have to keep “soft knees” to allow you to move your pelvis and hips without causing your feet to move. Similarly, to be able to wiggle without moving your body and shoulders, you must be able to keep your stomach/diaphragm relaxed — so that hip motion is isolated from body and shoulder motion.

The majority of hip action is actually generated by transferring weight from side to side, which only causes the hip movement as a consequence. Hip motion generated by deliberately moving the hips looks unnatural and stilted.

It is possible to “fake” wiggling your hips, well at least when stood still. Forget your hips — keep your legs and knees pressed together with “soft” knees and then move your knees slightly from side to side, or even draw small horizontal circles with your knees — your hips should start to wiggle of their own accord. If you are practising wiggling, then placing both your hands at the top of your pelvis can make it easier to feel how your hips are moving by feeling the movement through your hands and arms.

Lunges

Freestyle

Freestyle is the time to practise your dancing (lead and follow, floor-craft, etc.). There are no particular rules, or set framework for freestyle dancing, other than general courtesy — if you can lead it and follow it, that's freestyle. The more that you practise the easier freestyle dancing becomes.

Think ahead — but don't plan too far ahead. Unlike chess or other situations with clear rules, it's difficult to plan a long way ahead in freestyle social dancing — if you plan too far ahead it is likely that something will go wrong and you'll end up having to throw your carefully crafted plan(s) away. As mentioned previously: clear leads; keep alert; make it fun!

Dancers have freedom of expression in freestyle like musicians in jazz. Ideally, couples will interpret the music as they feel it, as leaders (and followers) have their own preferred moves, etc.

Simple moves, less-is-more, low-movement, loose lead, equal movement by both partners (to reduce the effort for the follower).

Can lead two single returns, whenever you would normally dance one — which will fit a slightly longer twiddley part in the music — and helps when fitting moves to match musical four beat bars, e.g. a First Move with two Returns will fit into a whole number of musical bars.

In any right-to-right handhold, the leader can lead the follower into a Sway.

Building Confidence

Freestyle (and performance) confidence can be built up, by learning to taking your hands and arms out and away from the body. In essence, this teaches you to become less shy, and protective of your body while dancing.

Similarly, freestyle (and performance) confidence can be enhanced if you learn to break away and dance solo, i.e. separately from your partner. Dancing solo, means that you don't have a partner to hide behind. As you build confidence, you can extend the length of time away from your partner.

Challenge and build your confidence by practising in a non-traditional setting. For example, try rehearsing in a public place like a park.

Whilst bearing in mind safety issues, try and do a speed run of the performance to fast music, dancing the routine at top speed. Keep going, do not stop, simply skip over any mistakes.

Starting

Start Positions

The “traditional” starting position in Modern Jive is an open facing handhold — probably since most classes start this way. However, other starting positions are possible, for example, in a closed dance hold (or blues dance hold), or in any of the other Sway (blues sway) or cuddle positions. Similarly, Latin dances often start with the follower in front of the leader in a cuddle position — for example, in left-to-left handhold and decorative hand moves, etc. transferring to say a right-to-left handhold and unwrap out to in-line position. Partners can start in a jockey position, stepping forwards and backwards until the introduction finishes.

In closed dance hold moves can be indicated by a slight lean by the leader, as a gentle lead in the next direction the move will be performed — also gives an indication that the move is about to happen especially if changing from a relatively static position.

To use up the introduction, simply keep walking in-time — either with, towards, or around your partner.

Starting Together

The Introduction

Musicians typically start a song with a catchy (four or eight bar) introduction to grab the listener's attention.

Social dancers can use the introduction to make their way onto the dance floor, etc. It can look a bit strange to dance at full speed to a slow track introduction; similarly, just standing still waiting for the introduction to finish isn't terribly interesting. Hence, a slow musical introduction may be better suited to smaller simple movements, as dancers slowly accelerate up to speed, before the main part of the track.

In social dance, the follower can start moving and interpreting the music before the leader starts moving — with the leader catching them up later, but shouldn't back lead moves at the leader.

Keeping In Time

There are several issues: need to be able to dance in time with each other, need to be able to dance in time to the music. Especially, beginner leaders need their followers to help them — and appreciate that they need to adjust to their leader first, and then to the music, especially if the leader is concentrating on floor craft, leading, remembering the moves and footwork, etc. — musical appreciation comes a long way down the list.

Since Modern Jive is a partner dance, both partners should dance to the music together — as the leader may deviate from the strict musical tempo, for example, slowing the dance down to accommodate very fast music. The follower should acquire the dance rhythm (beat, tempo) from the leader. Where possible, lead the intended rhythm before the first step or move, e.g. by stepping in time, or swaying slightly in closed dance hold, so that both partners are synchronised. Starting together is a good reason to start in a closed dance hold, as false starts will be less noticeable.

Getting Back In Time

The easiest (and often “cleanest”) way in social dancing to get back in time with the music and with each other is just to stop and then restart afresh.

If you are slightly out of time with the music, it's possible for the leader and follower to “disconnect” and then come back together in time with the music, e.g. if the leader does a spin, they can adjust its speed to fit so that it ends clearly with the beat. Since it's a spin, the leader is disconnected from the follower's interpretation of the beat and it's relatively easy to lead the follower back in to time with the music, as they are stationary (waiting for the leader to spin).

Finishing Together

Swapping Sides

Rather than stepping past each other, a quick technique for swapping sides is for both partners to turn 180^o independently “on-the-spot”, e.g. swapping the follower from the leader's right side to his left side, or to swap the follower from in front of the leader to behind him.

If the leader turns 180^o, then they can lead the follower repeatedly from one side to the other.

Combining Turns

The leader's and follower's turns will combine, for example, when facing their turns will be additive when performed in opposite directions (in terms of the handholds).

This technique can be used to replace multiple returns with fewer combined turns.

For example, to get the effect (on the arms) of a double (consecutive) uncrossed double-handed return, the leader can lead a single (clockwise) Return for follower while they dance a (anticlockwise) top-turn — a similar effect to a she-goes, he-goes. This technique starts a “Cajun window” quickly, and reduces tangling the follower's arms.

Regaining Handhold

Can dos-e-do, walk around in a circle, etc.

For example, both partner's forward-crawl the hands — leader left hand, right-hand, both — follower right-hand, left hand, both.

Double-Handhold

Can Return into double-handed hold from a left to right hold, by sliding the leader's right hand from the follower's right-shoulder down their arm, taking up the extra right to left handhold.

Changing Hands

Combs

Can change hands from crossed to uncrossed using combs, etc.

A “duck” under crossed hands to “break” the grip and swap to uncrossed handhold, or a double comb (follower and leader) — including a “more sensual” “wiggle-wiggle” slow variation.

Catapults

Hands can be uncrossed by the leader turning 180^o to back the follower Can change hands from crossed to uncrossed using combs, etc.

Catapult Change

One handhold change is for the leader to back the follower, placing hands onto his shoulders. As the leader steps away, the leader catches the follower's hands straight-out behind him, and then leads the “exit” part of the Catapult.

Finding New Moves

There is not a lot of advice that you can get on inventing new moves. Some ideas are to consider other dances and to “steal” moves that can be integrated into your style. In theory, if you have a regular partner, it should be possible to integrate almost any dance move — especially if the music is similar — waltz moves are probably outside of the normal range of simple integration. In practice, if you want to lead an unusual move, it's easier if it doesn't involve complicated (syncopated) footwork and that there's a clear lead to indicate to your partner, e.g. “stealing” Zydeco-jitterbug moves, e.g. Cajun Window.

Hand placement can be varied to different heights — typically the hand placement is at waist height (Spinning Top), under the arms (Drop Kick), or on the shoulders (Neckbreak) — varying the height of the hand placement can sometimes change the entire character of a move.

Changing the direction of a 180^o spins or 180^o turns gives the same facing, but can change the character of a move subtly.

Small changes in facing (say up to 180^o) can be done as “jumps”, rather than simply pivoting.

Swap single spins for double spins.

Make an “in-place” move into a turning, or walking version.

Speed-up, or slow-down a move. Add syncopation.

Hand transfers (e.g. combs, shoulder slides, etc.) can sometimes be performed by flicking (throwing and catching) the follower's hand.

Adopt existing moves:

Be prepared to fail, and be prepared to apologise. As always, be considerate.

Choreography

Good positions for leader-led choreography include:

since the follower can see the leader's footwork and “shadow” them.

Leader-only choreography can be added at any time (provided, of course, that it doesn't “affect” the follower), e.g. a Half Nelson might be considered as leader only choreography, since the follower should remain “in the same place”.

Partnered choreography is often leadable (or rather followable) providing that the leader is in view of the follower and keeps the steps relatively simple, repeating them over several times e.g. grapevine, simple kicks, stamps, chassé, bicycle kick, etc. — in this case, the follower may miss the steps the first, or second time, but can mimic the leader after a while. If both the leader and follower know some stroll moves, then these also may be led / followed.

More esoteric terpsichorean delights are best left to pre-choreographed routines or a partner who shares your repertoire, especially moves with more complicated footwork, or steps where the follower is unable to see the leader, e.g. in a back-Charleston.

Can lead choreography from a Wurlitzer “spun-out” position, e.g. Michael Jackson turns, etc.

Leading In Freestyle

Linking Moves

When moves are linked together the last step of the current move becomes the first step of the next move — often the final step away becomes the first step away, so that the “repeated” step is removed.

Any uncrossed double-handed position can be preceded or followed by Arm Jive, or Basket variations.

Hand Changes

It's rare to find a class that teaches how to dance freestyle, most classes simply teach a way to dance a move, rather than noting the possible ways to lead, or dance, that move. Most moves can be led on either hand, even if a quick hand change is required. The hand change can be done by passing the follower's hand from one of the leader's hands to the other. Alternatively, the hand change can be led by “throwing” the follower's hand to swap it between the leader's hands, i.e. leading the hand change clearly (with momentum) lets the leader release the follower's hand before catching it — the move becomes a drawn-out drag, or throw, and catch, rather than a hand to hand transfer.

Spins can be used to change handhold: either catching left or right-handed (or some double-handed combination) — this is why all of the moves described here that end with a spin are shown catching on either the left hand, or right hand, or might even catch double-handed. Turns can be used by the leader to change hands:

Handholds can be broken (and swapped) with a Change Of Places, or similar.

Uncrossing Hands

One way to uncross the hands is to lead a top-turn, or a Return to uncross the hands. To uncross hands can either simply release them, via e.g. a comb, or a spin, and take up an uncrossed hold upon catching. Alternatively, back the follower, placing hands on shoulders — then lead a catapult exit, with a spin.

Attitude

Adding “attitude”, backing the follower, posing.

Leader can often kneel down while the follower turns, or spins.

Basic Elements

There are only a few basic elements: Return, top-turn, First Move, Sway, Basket, arm jive, push away, pull together, walk forwards, walk backwards, walk circling, left comb, right comb, hammerlocks, catch and release, glides, checked moves.

Replacing Moves

The following moves can be used instead of a Return:

The following moves can be used instead of a First Move:

The following moves can be used instead of a top-turn:

Moves where leaders can spin:

Highs And Lows

Matching similar physiques creates an image that's less likely to be noticed. But taller people can lead and follow shorter ones and vice versa. Although, some adaptations may be required.

First observation for taller partners: if your feet are closed together then you will be taller — keep your feet apart, and you will sink in height (without having to bend your knees). If you modify your moves so that don't close your feet, then this will help you dance with shorter partners.

If you dance a comb, then let go “early” — don't try and hold on — many moves can be released quickly and you'll still keep the move flowing, but without having to stop in an awkward position. And yes, I will “race ahead” in a class to avoid having to stop and requiring my partner to stand on a box. Similarly, other hand changes at or over head height need to be danced so that the shorter partner is not forced on to tiptoe or has to jump.

One other technique is to dance a Lindy Hop move called “crazy legs” — this helps the taller partner to lose height by dancing with bent legs, rather than slouching.

Obviously, the taller partner can ham it up — leading moves from a kneeling position, or limboing under the arm in a step under, etc.

When travelling, taller partners need to be sensitive to shorter partners who aren't able to take large strides.

Miscellaneous

Backing the follower in a sort of cuddle position — taking both sets of hands to the left shoulder — is a similar handhold / position to having done a Travelling Return.

Competitions

Tits and teeth!

Don't forget to have a dress rehearsal; and practise in the outfit (and shoes) that will be worn for the performance.

Check your music with the DJ beforehand — ideally with a sound check. Agree any specific lighting requirements.

Walk through the routine in the venue.

Try to find some space to warm up.

Presentation

Presentation is the art of presenting a dance to an audience; not just your costume. For example, some moves such as the Drop Kick are more effective danced side on, rather than facing the audience. Similarly, moves that leave partners in an inelegant position relative to the audience, e.g. displaying their or your backside prominently towards the judges for long periods of time are best avoided.

Costumes

Costumes can help in making a good first impression (with judges) although provided they don't interfere with your dancing (or “clash” outrageously with your partner's outfit) then costumes aren't necessarily so important in freestyle competitions. However, the judges' task of relating couples and marks to their competition numbers (which may not always be in plain sight) will be made more confusing if the dance floor is full of similarly dressed dancers, e.g. marks might get confused, or lost, if all couples on the floor are wearing a (slimming) black ensemble.

Cabarets

Showcases

Items to consider include:

How long is the piece of music, you are intending to use. Think about the musical structure: where breaks occur, where the instrumental solos are, when any lyrics start and stop, and what the lyrics are saying etc. Analysing the music is most important for music without a fixed structure, e.g. jazz music, or if you want to hit a particular musical accent, or lyric.

For example, Tango in Harlem is 3 minutes 27 seconds in length — quick check from a compact disc player.

It can take a long time to count a (complicated) piece, so it's probably easiest to do this before hiring a practise space and starting to dance, so that you can maximise your practise time.

If the music has a regular structure then 8-beat moves (or multiples of 8-beats) can be switched around easily.

Team Showcases

Team Costumes

Unless you've managed to invent a cloning device, team costumes need to work with a large variety of body shapes and sizes — so a single cut won't necessarily suit all members. Hence, one solution is to allow members to pick an outfit that suits their size, personality, etc. form an overall theme, such as a strong limited colour scheme or style e.g. “urban chic”, tieing the look together with similar accessories.

Showcase Music

Competitors, judges, camera crew and the audience need to be able to hear the music — which is obvious! Unless your routine depends on a particular stereo effect, it may be advisable to use a mono mix of your track, since otherwise listeners may not hear parts of the track depending on where they, and the speakers, are in the room, which may not match your practise venue.

Projecting Your Mood

The perceived mood of your performance will be reflected by your body language — in particular, the direction that you are looking. If your head is up and your gaze is slightly upwards, then your mood may be interpreted as confident, uplifted, etc. If your head is down, or your gaze is slightly downwards, then your mood may be perceived as down hearted, etc.

The mood of a performance will also be affected by its music; music in a major key is usually interpreted as happy, while music in a minor key is usually considered as moody or melancholic.

Competitions

Make sure that the judges can see your competition number. Normally the competition number is safety pinned to the leader's back — or sometimes to the bottom of a trouser leg, if acrobatic moves are to be danced. It may be useful to bring extra safety pins to secure the competition number firmly, as competitions may only supply a limited number.

Make sure that the judges can see all of you and your partner (especially your feet) without having to strain. If the judges are seated on stage behind a desk, then there will be a “dead area” that the judges cannot see down into without leaning forwards (don't forget that the judges will also be getting tired as the competition draws on) and are much less likely to mark complicated dips, or intricate footwork in that area. If you dance on the edge of the floor, then the judges may not see you, and any competition video may not capture your performance — if you dance on the edge then the camera will only catch you when it pans to that side — if you dance in the middle, then the camera will catch you as it pans both left and right (through the middle). Some competitions may mark out the judges' (or possibly the cameras') visible area with tape on the dance floor.

Judges

Competition judges are human too!

Since dancing is an art, rather than a sport, there are no objective measures and any judgement will necessarily be subjective and will be based on who and where the judge(s) are watching⁷⁴. Different judges (including the audience) will be watching different dancers and making different subjective judgements:

As a competitor, it's effectively impossible to judge those dancing in the same heat, and your friends and acquaintances will probably be complimentary — so it is impossible to get a reliable “second opinion”. Whatever the result, the final arbiter of your dancing will be yourself:

Critics

As a spectator, it can be easy to criticise a performance — but bright lights, noise, a large crowd of peers, and a dose of adrenaline can affect even seasoned troupers.

Dance Styles

Walking

For comparison, it is useful to note that normal walking speed is around two steps per second [The Animator's Survival Kit — A Manual Of Methods, Principles And Formulas For Classical, Computer Games, Stop Motion And Internet Animators] (approximately 120 beats per minute), i.e. 40 bars of 3/4 music, or 30 bars of 4/4 music.

International Ballroom Dances

[Ballroom Dancing], [Richtig Tanzen 2: Standardtänze von den Grundformen zu den Tanzabzeichen — Langsame Walzer, Wiener Walzer, Tango, Foxtrott/Quickstep, Slowfox].

Waltz

The waltz⁷⁵ is a partner dance, danced in close hold along the line of dance, to 3/4 music. Typical waltz tempo is 29–32 bars per minute — with 30 bars per minute as a competitive tempo.

Quickstep

The quickstep is a partner dance, danced in close hold along the line of dance, to 4/4 music. Typical quickstep tempo is 42–52 bars per minute — with 52 bars per minute as a competitive tempo.

Tango

The tango is a progressive partnered ballroom dance, danced in a compact close hold — along the line of dance, to 2/4 music. Typical tango tempo is 30–33 bars per minute — with 33 bars per minute as a competitive tempo.

The tango features distinctive staccato head movements. There is no rise and fall in the tango.

Viennese Waltz

The Viennese Waltz is a partner dance, danced in close hold along the line of dance, to 3/4 music. Typical Viennese Waltz tempo is 50–60 bars per minute — with 60 bars per minute as a competitive tempo.

Foxtrot

The (slow) foxtrot is a partner dance, danced in close hold along the line of dance, to 4/4 music. Typical slow foxtrot tempo is 28–30 bars per minute — with 30 bars per minute as a competitive tempo.

Example music for a (social) foxtrot is “Moon dance” by van Morrison.

International Latin American Dances

[The Revised Technique of Latin-American Dancing], [Popular Variations In Latin-American Dancing], [The Revised Technique Of Latin-American Dancing], [Richtig Tanzen 1: Lateinamerikanische tänze von den Grundformen zu den Tanzabzeichen — Samba, Cha-Cha-Cha, Rumba, Paso Doble, Jive, Mambo/Salsa].

Cha-cha-cha

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

The cha-cha-cha is a partnered (latin) dance, danced in open and close holds to 4/4 music. Typical cha-cha-cha tempo is 32–34 bars per minute — with 32 bars per minute as a competitive tempo. The Cha-cha-cha “breaks” on the second beat in the bar and hence it is shown with an initial musical rest for the first beat — this first beat is often danced as a small preparation step to the side as a lead for the overall timing to start the dance.

Note that the first two steps in the cha-cha-cha chassé (triple step) are symmetric — and are each a half-beat in duration.

Rumba

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

The rumba is a partnered (latin) dance, danced in open and close holds to 4/4 music. Typical rumba tempo is 28–31 bars per minute — with 28 bars per minute as a competitive tempo. Sometimes described as “the dance of love”. The Rumba “breaks” on the second beat in the bar and hence it is shown with an initial musical rest for the first beat — this first beat is often danced as a small preparation step to the side as a lead for the overall timing to start the dance. In the rumba, the slow “st-ep” is a continuous motion of a step (to the side) followed by completely transferring weight onto that (now supporting) foot, which should give a natural hip action as the weight transfers onto that foot.

Samba

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

The samba is a progressive partnered (latin) dance, danced in open and close holds to 2/4 music. Typical samba tempo is 48–56 bars per minute — with 54 bars per minute as a competitive tempo.

Jive

History And Origins

Jive is the ballroom version of the Jitterbug (ECS), developed in Britain in the 1960's.

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

Basic Footwork And Variations

Jive is a non-progressive partnered (latin) dance, danced in both open and closed dance holds. Typical jive tempo is 40–46 bars per minute — with 44 bars per minute as a competitive tempo.

Footwork is normally based on the six beat basic: the leader's steps are backwards (left), rock (right), chassé (left-right-left), chassé (right-left-right), but can be varied: backwards (left), rock (right), step (left), step (right), or backwards (left), rock (right), step (left), tap (left), step (right), tap(right), or backwards (left), rock (right), tap (left), step (left), tap(right), step (right) — the follower mirrors.

More complex footwork can be seen, particularly in competitive ballroom dancing: kick (left), ball (left), change (right), kick (left), step (left), kick (right), step (right).

From the relationship between the dance steps and the musical structure, we can see that the six-beat pattern moves in and out of sequence with the musical four-beat bars. The Jive steps move within the music in a six bar pattern (24 beats match 6 complete 4-beat bars of music and match 4 complete 6-beat Jive basics), in contrast to Lindy Hop 8-beat moves. Hence, some classes will start with a triple-step (left-right-left) and some with a back rock (left-right),

Note that the first two steps in the jive chassé (triple step) are asymmetric — and are different lengths, i.e. the first step is three-quarters of a beat in duration, whereas the second step is only one-quarter of a beat in duration.

Body Position And Legs

Body position is “tall” and upright. The footwork is fast and light, but any kicks (and knee positions) are lower than in Continental Rock and Roll. The leader remains static in position, with the follower moving around him.

Dance hold

Standardisation And Organisations

Ballroom Jive moves and styling are standardised by organisations such as the ISTD, or the IDTA. See [Latin American Jive].

Paso Doble

The paso doble is a partnered (latin) dance, danced in open and close holds to 2/4 music. Typical paso doble tempo is 60–62 bars per minute — with 62 bars per minute as a competitive tempo. The Paso Doble is a dance that celebrates the movement of a bull-fighter.

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

American Smooth

American smooth is an American version of international ballroom dances. American smooth comprises: foxtrot, waltz, Viennese Waltz , tango, peabody (precursor to the quickstep). Unlike international ballroom dances, American smooth removes the restriction that couples remain in a closed dance hole — allowing couples to dance in open and shadow positions, and also includes spins and turns.

American Rhythm

American rhythm is an American version of international latin american dances. American rhythm comprises: rumba, cha cha, mambo, east coast swing and bolero.

Latin Dances

Merengue

A dance from the Dominican Republic.

Music

Music is a 4-beats; quick, quick, quick, quick — danced as a constant stepping movement.

Films

“My Cousin Vinnie” has a short merengue scene.

Lambada

Lambada is a (very) close partner dance; incorporating elements from many dances including: forró, salsa and merengue. Lambada originated in Brazil; but came to international attention when the group Kaoma released their 1989 hit “Lambada”.

The basic lambada musical rhythm is quick, quick, slow — danced as three steps, plus a single preparation step that is danced as a hip lift (lifting the foot off the ground) or as a small kick (without weight), i.e. left, right, left, right kick (without weight), right, left, right, left kick (without weight) — with a quick, quick, slow (and) timing.

Dance position is close with slightly bent knees, with a necessarily offset dance hold, so that partners can step and kick between each other's feet. Lambada is danced with the whole body, not just the legs — in fact the word lambada derives from Brazilian Portuguese; referring to the flowing wave-like motion in a whip — this is mimicked by the dancers bodies and is one of the characteristic elements of lambada. The follower dances on the balls of their feet (heels off the ground — as if tip-toeing on hot sand) with a twist motion so that their steps become more of a “grind” (as if stubbing out a cigarette) which emphasize their hip movements — this is less important for the man.

Music for lambada should have the characteristic three-beat rhythm: e.g. rumba or zuke music.

Lambada References

[Lambada!]

Mambo

Mambo is a partnered dance, danced in both open and closed dance holds. Typical mambo tempo is 36–52 bars per minute. Mambo is a 1940's dance style similar to Salsa; dancers break on beat two.

Salsa

Salsa is a partnered dance, danced in both open and closed dance holds. Salsa is danced to 4/4 music [Salsa!] with a typical salsa tempo of 36–52 bars per minute.

There are two variants of salsa:

There are several different styles of salsa, including:

Most salsa dance steps follow a six step (QQSQQS) pattern; generally the first three steps are a preparation, while the remaining three steps are the resolution of the move, often a turn or spin.

Steps

“Mambo”— basic step

Cucharacha — side step

Back basic

Shines

History And Origins

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

Salsa References

[Salsa Syllabus Notes — Pre-Bronze, Bronze, Silver & Gold], [Salsa!], [Salsa & Merengue — The Essential Step-By-Step Guide].

Rueda

A rueda is a circular progressive dance (usually a salsa) with a caller indicating moves for everyone to follow, similar to square dances, e.g. swing rueda is a progressive swing (Lindy Hop) dance; rueda de casino is a progressive Cuban style salsa.

Basic salsa rueda moves include:

Some swing ruedas will use “customised names”, e.g. custard, runny custard, jelly and custard, etc.

Salsa Suelta

There is even a salsa version of line dancing; called salsa suelta (“loose salsa”).

Bachata

A dance from the Dominican Republic. Dance position is a closed dance hold, close together, in “the mush”. Knees need to be slightly flexed to get a good hip action — which means that the dance position is slightly lowered, especially as the dance primarily has the legs akimbo.

Bachata, has an 8 beat basic:

The direction of the basic can be changed, e.g. to a forwards and backwards movement.

The timing of the basic can also be changed, leading to a “swaying” variation.

Swing Dances

Fifties Rock'n'Roll

Rock'n'Roll References

See [Rock'n'Roll Dancing — A Step by Step Guide], [Rock 'N' Roll Study Notes] and [Learn To Dance Jive].

Films

Back to the Future (part 1).

Continental Rock'n'Roll

Continental Rock'n'Roll was developed in (continental) Europe and often features extremely acrobatic throws. Continental Rock'n'Roll footwork has a high knee action with kicks and kick-ball-changes. See [Handbuch Für Rock'n'Roll] and [So Tanzt Man Rock'n'Roll].

Zydeco Jitterbug

History And Origins

Zydeco References

[Cajun Dancing]

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

Basic Footwork And Variations

Lindy Hop

History And Origins

The Lindy Hop is named after Charles Lindbergh who made the first non-stop solo transatlantic flight in the Spirit of Saint Louis, between Roosevelt Field (near New York) and Le Bourget, Paris on May 20, 1927.

Lindy Hop was popularised in the Savoy Ballroom, Harlem, New York (opened Mar 12, 1926). Promoted by lindy hop dance troupes, such as Whitey's Lindy Hoppers. Lindy Hop brought a variety of dance innovations, including: breakaways (dancing apart from your partner) and air steps.

Lindy Hop enjoyed a brief renaissance in the 1990's, partly due to the series of dance based Gap clothing company advertisements — especially one featuring swing dancing.

Lindy Hop was also known as “smooth” — since there is little variation in head height when dancing — no bobbing up, or down — despite frenetic footwork.

See also [Let's Lindy], [The Swing Book].

There are several different variations of Lindy Hop:

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

Lindy Hop emphasize the downbeat, i.e. the first and third beats in the bar, and (excepting Hip Hop Lindy) is generally danced to swing music, i.e. jazz music played by big bands, popular in the 1930–1940's, e.g. Count Basie — One O'Clock Jump. Swing music is syncopated, stressing beats that are generally unstressed, e.g. a-one-and-a-two.

Basic Footwork And Variations

Lindy Hop is a syncopated partnered dance, danced in both open and closed dance holds. Based on an eight beat basic: the leader's steps are backwards (left), rock (right), triple-step (left-right-left), step (right), step (left), triple-step (right-left-right). Lindy Hop also includes six beat moves: backwards (left), rock (right), triple-step (left-right-left), triple-step (right-left-right) — the follower mirrors.

From the relationship between the dance steps and the musical structure, we can see that the eight-beat pattern keeps in sequence with the (pairs of) musical four-beat bars. The position of the first dance step and the first musical beat coincides for eight beat Lindy Hop moves, in contrast with six beat Jive moves. Using two, four or six beat moves will shift the position of eight beat moves within the overall musical structure. Ensuring that an eight beat move coincides with a (pair of) musical four-beat bars, requires a combination of “smaller” moves to form a multiple of eight beats, e.g. four six beat moves equals three eight beat moves, or two six beat moves and a four beat move equals two eight beat moves — this might be needed to hit a particular musical break, or simply to finish with the music, ta-da!

Basic Lindy Hop Moves

Basic Lindy Hop moves include:

Also includes the send-out, leading the follower from a closed jockey position to an open facing hold⁷⁶; and the slingshot, a swingout variation where the leader dances a lunge forwards, before leading the swingout.

Body Position And Legs

Lindy Hop is also known as “smooth”, as despite complex (sometimes frenetic) footwork there is little variation in the head height, i.e. the head does not bob up and down.

Body position is “athletic” — the knees are slightly flexed with the body weight kept forwards over the balls of the feet — body leaning forwards (bottom sticking out) with a low centre of gravity.

Dance hold

Standardisation And Organisations

Competitions

Lindy References

[Let's Lindy].

Films

Personalities

Jazz Steps

Sugar footin'

Jitterbug

History And Origins

Jitterbug developed in 1930–1940's as a tamer version of the Lindy Hop — sometimes the term is used to signify a simplified six beat version, like ECS and Jive.

Films

See “Groovy Movie” for an affectionate short description.

West Coast Swing (WCS)

West Coast Swing is a slotted partner dance, danced in open and close holds to 4/4 music. Typical West Coast Swing tempo is 20–35 bars per minute. West Coast Swing⁷⁷ is a syncopated partner dance; it is also the California state dance.

West Coast Swing moves can easily be joined together, since all moves finish with an anchor step (and the lady will step forwards as the first step of the next move on her right foot). West Coast Swing moves can be six beats, eight beats, or longer — longer moves will necessarily require additional leads (after the initial lead).

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

Slow and slinky — slower tempo then East Coast Swing, or Lindy Hop.

Basic Footwork And Variations

West Coast Swing is generally danced in an open position, with occasional closed positions, e.g. during a whip. The follower moves within a slot on the dance, while the leader may move in and out of the slot to allow the follower freedom to travel. Moves are typically six, or eight beats. The six beat basic is: step (left), step (right), chassé (left-right-left), chassé (right-left-right). Basic six beat moves include: the basic (sugar push), left side pass, right side pass, and touch turn. Basic eight beat moves include: the whip.

The main footwork difference from ECS and Lindy in basic steps is that travelling (especially for the leader) is mostly done on the two steps, rather than during the two chassés. In particular, the partners don't back rock; rather than stepping and moving most of the weight backwards on the right foot, and then replacing weight forwards on to the left foot, (a back rock) the follower walks forwards right, forwards left in the basic steps.

Body Position And Legs

Footwork is “smooth”, with definite weight transfers, and danced “into” the ground. Body position is upright with little height variation; at the beginning of a basic dancers may be very slightly leant backwards (during the walk — tension phase); dancers may be very slightly leant forwards (during the push — compression phase).

Dance hold

The dance hold varies: in the east coast swingout the dance hold is relatively relaxed, and the left-to-right hands may be at waist level; whereas in the whip, the dance hold is higher with the leader's right hand on the follower's left shoulder blade.

Standardisation And Organisations

East Coast Swing (ECS)

History And Origins

Music (Style, Time signature, Tempo)

Basic Footwork And Variations

East Coast Swing is a syncopated partnered dance, danced in both open and closed dance holds. Based on six beat basic: backwards (left), rock (right), chassé (left-right-left), chassé (right-left-right).

Body Position And Legs

Dance hold

Standardisation And Organisations

Charleston

History And Origins

The Charleston was originally a 1920's partner dance originating from Charleston, South Carolina.

The Charleston has been incorporated into the Lindy Hop: either in jockey position, or tandem (either partner in front), side Charlestons, and hand-to-hand Charlestons.

Charleston steps progress around the body, in a circular motion — either clockwise or anticlockwise.

Boogie Woogie

Boogie woogie is a slotted partner dance, danced in open and close holds to 4/4 music. Developed in the 1950's in Europe, footwork is fast and grounded — unlike Continental Rock'n'Roll it doesn't feature throws.

Basic Footwork And Variations

Boogie Woogie is a partnered dance, popular in Europe. Based on six beat basic; step, step, triple-step, triple-step. The follower moves along a slot, with the leader travelling around her.

Body Position And Legs

The steps are performed with the toes rolling through the step, feet remain close to the floor, rather than kicking — the footwork is higher than Lindy Hop chassés, but lower than Continental Rock'n'Roll kicks. The triple-steps are performed “in-place” under the body, rather than travelling like a chassé. The step, step is not normally a back-rock. At any point in time, one leg / knee should be bent, with the heel off the floor, and the toe close to the floor. The musical emphasis comes at the end of the triple-step, i.e. to beats 2 and 4, because the triple-steps don't travel.

Dance hold

The separation between partners and handholds are slightly more extended than in Modern Jive or Lindy Hop because of the speed of the dance.

Standardisation And Organisations

Footwork can be improvised, providing that the overall structure of the moves can be maintained — for example the step, step can be replaced by

Other Dances

Night Club Two Step

Milonga

The milonga⁷⁸ is an Argentinian partner dance, that predates the tango. The milonga is danced with alternating steps, in general every beat will be “stepped” — sometimes with syncopations.

Argentine Tango

The Argentine tango is an improvised partner dance, developed in Buenos Aires at the end of the nineteenth century. The most important element in Argentine tango is danced walking in a closed dance hold along the line of dance, to 2/4, 3/4, or 4/4 music. Generally, legs are kept close together when walking, so that the knees and ankles brush when stepping. More complex movements include distinctive leg movements, such as sacadas, ganchos, etc.